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PRINCIPLES 

OF FARM 

PRACTICE 





Book_L-ZZc51^ 

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CjoRlRIGHt deposit. 



RURAL EDUCATION SERIES 

Edited by Harold W. Foght 

PRESIDENT SOUTH DAKOTA TEACHERS COLLEGE 



PRINCIPLES 
OF FARM PRACTICE 



BY 

BENJAMIN MARSHALL DAVIS 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, MIAMI UNIVERSITY 
AUTHOR OF "agricultural EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS' 
" SCHOOL AND HOME EXERCISES IN ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE" 



D. C. HEATH & CO. PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1922, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 

2C 2 



PRINTED IN U.S.A. 

APR 13 1922 
CIA661259 



PREFACE 

For several years the author has been giving a survey course 
in agriculture for teachers and prospective teachers attending 
the summer session of Miami University. Many of these students, 
who were teachers of agriculture, have expressed a wish that the 
contents of the course be assembled and organized into a textbook 
adapted for use in the problem method of instruction. 

An attempt was made to organize the material of this course 
around the farm as the unifying center. It was then submitted 
to trial in both regular and Smith-Hughes courses in high schools. 
The results of this test seemed to justify making the material thus 
organized available for instruction in the form presented in this 
book. 

The author spent some time visiting high schools of Massachu- 
setts where agriculture was being taught by the project method. 
Through the courtesy of Dr. Rufus W. Stimson, Director of the 
Massachusetts Agricultural Education Service, the author was 
able to see many of the projects in actual operation and to study 
the plans from which they were developed. 

He also visited the agricultural colleges of many of the great 
farming states to inspect the work of training teachers for agri- 
cultural instruction. At this time he came into contact with a 
number of men interested in problems of agricultural education 
and with specialists in various scientific aspects of agriculture. 

Mention is made of this fact in acknowledgement to those 
men for their contribution, though made unconsciously, to the 
preparation of this book. The field of agriculture is too large for 
one person always to be sure of his ground even in an elementary 
textbook. For this reason the author feels greatly indebted to 



iv PREFACE 

those who have helped give authority to much that appears in 
the following pages. 

Particular reference should be made to Mrs. Mildred Douthitt 
Hiers, Mr. Charles Stephenson, and Mr. Clyde Hissong for advice 
and suggestions as to arrangement of subject matter from the teach- 
ing standpoint, and to Mr. Hissong, especially, for trying out the 
material thus arranged in a Smith-Hughes high school; to Miss 
Miss Grace Kiernan for compiling index and reading proof; to Pro- 
fessor John V. Ankeney, of the University of Missouri, for reading 
the manuscript and for several illustrations; to Professor Bruce 
Fink, of Miami University, for critical reading of Chapters I, XIV 
and XV; to Professor T. L. Harris, of the University of West 
Virginia, for suggestions in preparation of Chapters XXVIII, 
XIX and XXX; to Dean Alfred Vivian, of the Agricultural Col- 
lege of Ohio State University, for comments on correct theories and 
practices relating to soil fertility and use of fertiUzers; to Professor 
G. I. Christie, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Purdue University, and to members of the staff, for many help- 
ful suggestions and for reading the proof of the entire book; to 
Mrs. Emma Johnson Davis, wife of the author, for her great 
help in preparing the manuscript for publication and in reading 
the proof sheets. 

Acknowledgement is given in the description of the figures 
as they appear in the text for those not made by the author or 
under his direction. 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

Principles of Farm Practice is written with the fundamental 
fact in mind that Agriculture teaching, like agricultural life, must 
be lived from day to day. Instruction in theory and the accumula- 
tion of facts are of little value in themselves. The textbook and 
teaching process that make the things taught part of the student's 
life, because of logical arrangement and practical apphcation to 
every day affairs, are alone worth while. Such it is hoped, the 
present book will prove to be. 

In teaching such a primary subject as agriculture, it is well 
to keep in mind that food, clothing and shelter come first in the 
list of human wants. Until they are provided the people, either 
savage or civihzed, will pay httle attention to the other desirable 
things of life. If modern agricultural people, therefore, ^re to 
live well rounded lives they must first of all be put in a position 
to make a good living out of the land. In the United States about 
seventy-five percent of the nation's wealth comes immediately out 
of the land in one form or another. The farmers are the greatest 
wealth producers we have, although not the greatest wealth 
keepers; for, under the present system of agricultural organization 
the farmers are able to keep only a small part of this wealth for 
themselves. The schools must, accordingly, teach new things, 
not alone .in agricultural production — acre by acre, but also 
in how to prepare products for market and how to market them. 

This book accordingly aims to help the children to become better 
and more scientific farm folk than those who have gone before 
them; but most of all it aims to help them to live happy, contented 
lives in the open country, in fullest harmony with the nature en- 
vironment round about them. It is not enough to instruct in 
agricultural objects and practices; the educational and spiritual 
views of agricultural hfe are fully as essential. All of these are 
given careful consideration in the book. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. What We Need to Know about Plants to Help 

Them Grow i 

II. The Soil 8 

III. Soil Water and Soil Air 12 

IV. Plant Food and Soil Fertility 26 

V. Commercial Fertilizers and Soil Amendments. ... 39 

VI. Soil Management 46 

VII. Crop Production ^y 

VIII. Production of Corn y^ 

IX. Small Grains gg 

X. Forage Crops 108 

XL M;iscellaneous Crops 119 

XII. Use and Care of the Farm Garden 131 

XIII. Frltit Raising on the Farm 138 

XIV. Plant Improvement . . . • 147 

XV. Plant Diseases 161 

XVI. Weeds 173 

XVII. Insects 180 

XVIII. Birds as Related to Agriculture 194 

XIX. Why Raise Farm Animals? 201 

XX. How TO Produce Farm Animals 205 

XXI. Kind of Farm Animals to Keep 216 

XXII. Production of Beef Cattle 220 

XXIII. Dairy Cattle (Milk Production) 223 

XXIV. Sheep Production 252 

XXV. Hog Production 261 

XXVI. Farm Horses 270 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVII. Poultry Raising on the Farm 278 

XXVIII. Farm Management 294 

XXIX. The Farm Home 309 

XXX. The Rural Community 319 

Appendix 327 

I. References 327 

II. Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds of Common Feeding 

Stuffs 335 

III. Feeding Standard i2>^ 

IV. Spraying Program 337 

Index 343 



AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION— TO THE TEACHER 

The successful teacher of agriculture has in mind the transfer 
of what he teaches into actual practice. His ultimate aim is not 
so much to present information about farming as it is to con- 
tribute something toward better and more profitable farming, 
the essential basis for a better and more attractive rural life. With 
such an aim his problem is by no means an easy one. "Profitable 
farming," says former Secretary Meredith of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, "depends upon three things: ample 
production, minimum cost, and adequate prices." — Referring 
to production he says: 

"Ample production at minimum cost involves more efficient 
methods and economical operations. Factors in this are better 
utilization of the soil, more intelligent use of fertilizers, the use 
of better seed, the growing of more productive strains and varieties, 
better methods of preventing soil erosion, more effective methods 
of combating insect pests, plant and animal diseases, the produc- 
tion of more and better grades of live stock, better utilization 
of forage and roughage and waste materials on the farms, better 
maintenance of soil fertility by conserving soil moisture and ma- 
nure, and a greater use of legumes in rotations and as companion 
or intertilled crops; the greater use of machinery and practical 
mechanical power on farms. 

"The problem of securing for the farmer prices which will 
enable him to maintain production is a more difficult one. At- 
tention must be given to better and more economical methods of 
grading, storing, marketing, and distributing farm products." 

To these factors two others may be added: that of management 
which is necessary to correlate the various farm enterprises into 
a well-planned system; and that of adequate business accounting 
which must accompany efficient management. 



X AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION 

It is difficult to find a basis of organization, or a principle of 
unity, to bind this large and diverse array of subject matter into 
a teaching whole. It cannot be found by considering agriculture 
as a science, although much of it is founded upon several sciences; 
for agriculture involves the art of farming as well as business 
methods. It seems necessary, therefore, to look to the successfully 
operated farm itself to find some means of unifying our subject 
for the purpose of instruction. From this source we draw two 
important conclusions in regard to successful farming: One is 
the characteristic of permanency that tends to conserve the re- 
sources of the land; the other, the close relationship between 
principle and practice observed in the various farm operations. 

The late Professor Cyril G. Hopkins of the University of Illinois 
was fond of using the expression "permanent agriculture" when 
he referred to the objective of American farming. He had in mind 
not only the present farmer but also the future farmer. He thought 
not only of the individual farm but of all the farms in the country. 
He had in mind stability of farming as a national asset, as con- 
trasted with the exploitation of naturally fertile land so much 
practiced today. He regarded the farm as an important unit in 
the conservation of our natural resources. 

This idea of conservation, in the sense of permanent agriculture, 
if kept in mind when dealing with the various aspects of farming 
will help to give unity to the subject and to bind together many 
of the diverse elements that must be considered in teaching 
agriculture. 

Furthermore, it is not easy to isolate principle from practice in 
farming. In actual farming the two are closely related. This 
fact has suggested the title of the book. It has influenced the 
development of the subject with the farm itself as the organizing 
center. It has enabled the author to eliminate much agricultural 
information which, though interesting, has little direct application 
in real practice, such as descriptions of insects and their classifica- 
tion, the history of breeds of live-stock, the detailed discussion of 
varieties of farm plants, geological formation of the soil, etc. This 



TO THE TEACHER xi 

plan was followed to enable the pupil to keep the farm and its 
operation prominently in view. 

Another reason for recognizing the close relation of principle 
and practice in a textbook on agriculture is found in the present 
tendency to use the problem method and home projects in teaching. 

It is the hope of the author that the matter presented in this 
book may be helpful to teachers who follow either or both of these 
types of instruction. In this connection it seems worth while to 
point out briefly the large aspects of the subject as they appear 
as a series of problems, one developing from another. 

Starting with the plant — since all kinds of farming are based 
directly or indirectly upon plant products — it appears that we 
need to know how the plant itself lives and grows in order to 
help it live and grow. Such an inquiry leads to the conclusion that 
whatever help is given must be applied largely through the soil. 

This suggests the soil as the next subject of study. What is 
the soil? Of what is it made? How does it hold water, air, and 
other substances needed by the plant in its growth? What sub- 
stances in the form of fertilizers or soil amendments may be added 
to make the soil more productive? How may the various facts 
about the soil and its relation to plants be applied in soil 
management? 

A knowledge of the soil and of how to manage it is needed for 
an intelligent production of crops. But crop production depends 
upon other factors besides the soil. What are the principles apply- 
ing generally to all crop production? What are the special require- 
ments for the production of common crops, such as corn, small 
grains, forage crops, and miscellaneous crops, and for the care 
and management of the farm garden and the farm orchard? 

How may plants be improved to increase crop production? 
How may crops be protected from things that interfere with pro- 
duction, as weeds, plant diseases, and insects? 

When a crop is produced what shall be done with it? Shall it 
be sold for cash or fed to farm animals? Shall farm animals be 
kept; if so, how shall they be cared for? What breeds shall be 



xii AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION 

kept or raised on the farm? If beef cattle, what breeds are desir- 
able, and how shall they be handled? If milk is to be produced 
as a chief farm enterprise, what breeds of dairy cattle shall be used? 
What special care shall be taken in feeding and care of the herd; 
and what practice shall be observed in handling milk? If sheep 
or hogs are to be raised, questions of breed, feeding, shelter and 
care are important. 

How shall all of the farm operations be correlated and the farm 
managed in an efficient manner? What accounts shall be kept 
in order to give necessary business information? What sort of a 
home shall the farmer have? What things are essential in mak- 
ing his home convenient, comfortable, and attractive? 

Finally, what relationships shall the farmer have with his neigh- 
bors? What place shall he take with his fellow men in his com- 
munity? What can he do to make his community a better place 
in which to live? What can he do in cooperation with others to 
make effective the various agencies of the open country that touch 
the lives of rural people, as farmers' clubs, the school, the church, 
and the recreation center? 

Each of these questions or problems resolves itself into smaller 
ones. The larger ones are presented as a rule in single chapters, 
the smaller ones are indicated in paragraphs. The form of assign- 
ment of the particular problem is left to the teacher, but the 
subject is indicated by chapter and paragraph headings. 

If a one-year or half-year course in high school, or a survey course 
in a Smith-Hughes high school is given, the order of the subject 
matter in the book may be followed. If home projects are de- 
veloped, the particular parts of the book pertaining to the project 
may be used. 

Although written primarily as a textbook it is the hope of 
the author that the material presented will not be hmited to 
this field; but that it may prove worthwhile to the reader who 
is interested in rural life, and may be of practical service to 
those actually engaged in farming. 

Further information on any subject in the book may be obtained 



TO THE TEACHER xiii 

from the references cited in the Appendix, Here also will be found 
tables of digestible nutrients, and other data useful for instruction. 
The author has departed from the usual custom of placing 
questions and exercises at the end of the chapters. A careful 
inquiry into the matter has seemed to indicate that neither ques- 
tions nor exercises are much used. Most teachers prefer to for- 
mulate their own questions and topics, and to prepare their own 
laboratory exercises, or to use prepared exercises in which are 
fuller directions for work than can be given in a textbook. 

Benjaaon Marshall Davis. 

Oxford, Ohio, 
February i, 1922 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



CHAPTER I 

WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT PLANTS TO HELP 
THEM GROW 

Plants, the basis of agriculture. — Plants are the founda- 
tion of all agriculture either directly when they supply food, 
clothing, or some other human need, or indirectly when they 
furnish feed for domestic animals. Since plants are really 
the basis of agricultural production, we must, first of all, in a 
study of agriculture consider some of the main facts about 
how plants live. 

Plants are living beings. — That plants have life is a 
fact that needs to be repeated though it may be known to all 
who read these lines. It seems necessary to emphasize this 
because we habitually think of the word '' living " as mean- 
ing to move around and behave like animals. As a matter 
of fact, plants are as much alive as animals. In order to live, 
they require essentially the same things as animals do; but 
they get these things in an entirely different way. The most 
important of these requirements are food, water, and air. 

How plants get food. — The green plants make their own 
food from raw materials obtained from air, soil, and water. 
The basic food material made by the plant is starch or a 
starch-like substance. Starch is composed of three elements: 
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The carbon and oxygen come 



2 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

from a compound always present in the air, known as carbon 
dioxide, and the hydrogen from water. The starch-making 
process goes on in the green part of the plant, mostly in the 
leaves. But the work of starch-making from carbon dioxide 
and water requires power, or energy. This power comes 
from sunHght. Here we have an explanation of the fact that 
green plants thrive only in the presence of sunlight. 

With starch-like substances thus formed as a basis, other 
food materials are made. For example, an important food 
known as protein is formed by using the elements composing 
the starch-like compounds made by the leaves, and nitrogen 
which is brought to the plant in substances dissolved in soil 
water. Besides nitrogen, a number of other chemical ele- 
ments obtained from materials dissolved in soil water seem 
to be necessary for food-making in the plant. The most im- 
portant of these, from an agricultural standpoint, are phos- 
phorus and potassium. 

Why plants need water. — That plants need water is shown 
by the fact that they soon die when deprived of water. A 
leading authority on plant life says that the greatest thing 
influencing plant growth is water. It is used by the plant in 
several ways. Its part in supplying the raw material for 
starch-making and in bringing to the plant several elements 
from the soil, as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, has 
been mentioned. In addition, water helps to make the plant 
rigid; it composes most of the sap, transfers food materials 
from place to place in the plant, and assists in the control of 
temperature. 

Water passes through healthy, vigorous plants in a con-, 
stant stream, entering through the roots and escaping in the 
form of watery vapor through the leaves. A large amount of 
water is thus used by a plant during the growing season. It 



HELPING PLANTS GROW 3 

is estimated that for every pound of dry matter produced by 
common cultivated crops an average of about 300 pounds of 
water must pass through the plants. It has been found that a 







Diagram of a plant showing its relations to the soil, air, 
and water. 



corn plant may lose nine pounds of water in eight and one- 
half hours. At this rate an acre of corn would lose forty- 
eight tons of water — an amount equivalent to one-half inch 
rainfall in the given time. 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



How plants get water. — If the roots of a young radish 
plant which has been developed by placing seed between two 
moist pieces of paper are examined, they 
will be found to be covered with fine hairs. 
These hairs are called root-hairs. They 
are the absorbing organs of the roots. The 
roots themselves absorb little water. 
They serve to hold the plant in place. 
They also furnish surface for the develop- 
ment and distribution of root-hairs, in 
much the same way that twigs and 
branches of a tree afford surface for the 
development and distribution of the 
leaves. All the roots of a plant taken to- 
gether are known as a root-system. As 
roots grow in length new root-hairs appear 
near the root-ends, while the root-hairs 
farthest away from the ends shrivel up 
and disappear. Thousands of little roots 
of a vigorously growing plant push their 
way into all parts of the upper layers of 
the soil, where they develop root-hairs for 
the absorption of water. In this way, 
much of the capillary water in the region 
of root growth is reached and supplied 
to the plant. 

The extent of the root-system of a 
plant can be realized only by carefully 
measuring or estimating the total length 
of all the roots. It has been estimated that if all the roots of a 
nearly mature corn plant were placed end to end they would 
extend about one thousand feet, and that those of certain 



Diagram ot root- 
hair much enlarged. 

A . Cell or root from 
which root-hair is an 
outgrowth. 

B. Root-hair. 

C. Soil particle. 

D. Film of water 
around soil particle. 

Arrows show path of 
water through root- 
hair. 



HELPING PLANTS GROW 



squash plants would extend fifteen miles. The tendency of 
a root-system to reach into all parts of the soil near its surface 
is an important fact to remember. Thus, when the soil 
between rows of plants, like corn, is cultivated deeply, es- 
pecially late in the growing season, many 
feet of small roots will be destroyed. 

Root-systems are of two kinds; those 
having a central root with smaller roots 
radiating from it, and those having a 
number of roots of nearly uniform size 
extending from the part of the plant lying 
just beneath the surface of the soil. The 
former is called tap-root and is illustrated 
by the roots of such plants as the com- 
mon clover; the latter are fibrous roots, 
illustrated by roots of such plants as com- 
mon grasses. Tap-rooted plants are as a 
rule deeper growing than those having 
fibrous roots. This fact is sometimes of 
practical value in selecting a crop for 
very shallow soils, or for a rotation be- 
tween shallow and deep-rooted plants. 

How root-hairs take water from the 
soil. — Root-hairs have been referred to 
the absorbing organs of the root. 



4: 



Diagram of simple 
apparatus for demon- 
strating osmosis, 

A. Tube. 

B. Sugar solution 
within tube. 

C. Water 

D. Membrane — 
lima bean skin — sepa- 
rating sugar solution 
from water. 

E. Cardboard sup- 

The way in which these hairs are able to 
absorb water from the soil may be illustrated by a simple 
experiment. If a bladder with a glass tube securely fastened 
into its neck is filled with a solution of sugar and then im- 
mersed in water with the tube above, the solution will begin in 
a short time to rise in the tube. This action is known as 
osmosis. It always takes place when two liquids of different 



as 



6 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

densities, like water and sugar solution, are separated by a 
membrane through which water may freely pass. The water 
flows toward the liquid of the greater density, as in the above 
instance where it enters the bladder containing the sugar 
solution, or denser liquid, causing it to rise in the tube. The 
root-hair may be regarded as a small sac filled with a liquid 
somewhat denser than water. When the root-hair comes in 
contact with soil water some of the water passes into the 
root-hair just as water would enter a bladder filled with 
sugar solution. The water then proceeds from the root- 
hair into the root, and thence into the various parts of the 
plant. 

Plants need air. — If a plant is deprived of air it soon dies. 
Not only does the air furnish carbon dioxide for the starch- 
making, but it also suppHes oxygen in much the same way 
as is done in our own bodies. Oxygen is needed by all parts 
of the plant all the time. The parts of the plant above 
ground are surrounded by air and have air currents freely 
moving among them, so that they are at all times abundantly 
suppHed with oxygen. The roots, on the other hand, being 
below ground and having only a small supply of air, may fail 
to get sufficient oxygen or may fail to have the supply, re- 
newed often enough to remove injurious gases as they ac- 
cumulate in the soil spaces. An example of the effect of 
insufficient air on the growth of plants may be seen in the 
low wet spots in a field where some crop such as corn is grow- 
ing. Plants in these wet spots are generaffy undeveloped and 
weak, and often die. This is because the water with which 
the soil is saturated has cut off the air supply from the roots, 
thus depriving them of oxygen. 

How to help plants grow. — We have seen that plants 
require sunlight, air, water, and certain substances dissolved 



HELPING PLANTS GROW 7 

in soil water. Our problem is to make conditions as favor- 
able as possible for plants to meet these needs. A study of 
them will show that we have little or no control over sun- 
shine and the air above ground. The chief way for us to 
help the plant therefore is through the soil. By means of 
various farm operations on the soil it is possible to control, 
to a considerable extent, the water supply and the air needed 
by the roots, and to furnish material containing such chemical 
elements as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, in ac- 
cordance with the needs of the plant. 

This fact suggests the soil as the most appropriate subject 
to consider next in our study of agriculture. It is so important 
that we must study it in detail. Especially should we know 
what it is and how it is related to water supply, to air, and 
to plant food. 



CHAPTER II 
THE SOIL 

In the preceding chapter attention was called to the fact 
that some of the needs of the plant, such as sunshine, were 
beyond our control; while others — relating to the work of 
the roots — could be controlled through the soil, by making 
conditions more favorable. The effect of soil condition upon 
the entire plant is recognized by everyone who is familiar 
with growing plants. When the condition is poor, as in hard, 
dry soil, the effect is seen upon the entire plant. The roots, 
in such cases, are unable to do their work well. Consequently, 
the whole plant suffers. On the other hand, when the con- 
dition is good, as in granular, moist soil, the whole plant is 
well-developed and vigorous. The roots have access to air 
and are able to remove readily from the soil the water and 
material in solution needed for the growth of the entire plant. 

Since so much in plant production depends upon the soil, 
it is necessary to understand the most important facts con- 
cerning it — what soil is, where it comes from, and the differ- 
ent kinds of soil. 

What soil is. — By soil is generally meant the loose top- 
covering of the earth. If a small portion of this substance 
be placed in a bottle of water, well shaken and then allowed 
to settle, it will be seen to be made up of particles of different 
sizes. The larger particles will be found at the bottom, 
smaller ones next, and so on to the very fine particles that 



THE SOIL 




;B' 



J> 



\ \ 



VHe 




Diagram illustrating relation 
of soil to sub-soil. 

A. Soil, B. Sub-soil. 
C. Underlying rocks. 



remain for a while in suspension. Some small pieces of dark 

material will probably be noticed floating on the surface of 

the water. The larger particles are 

sand; the fine particles, silt; the 

very fine particles, clay; the float- ;"; ' 

ing bits of dark material, organic .' 

matter, or humus. Sand, silt, and 

clay are rock particles, differing 

mainly in size. Organic matter, 1- 

or humus, is the remains of decayed — 

plants or animals. ~ 

Where soil comes from. — A 

long time ago the upper surface of 
the earth 
was solid 

rock, and in some places this condition 
still exists. By action of wind and rain, 
heat and cold, plants and animals, and 
other agencies, many of the rocks have 
been broken into particles small 
enough to be washed away by water 
or blown about by winds. Through 
a long period of thousands of years 
these processes have been going on. 
The rocks on higher places like moun- 
composed tains and hills have been broken up, and 
the small fragments have been carried 
to lower levels by water and wind, 

where they were left to form the soil as we see it. In the 

meantime, plants have grown and died and their remains have 

become mixed with the rock particles. This fact accounts 

for the presence of organic matter, or humus, in the soil. 



Diagram of soil particles 
enlarged. 

A. Sand. 

B. Granule 
of very fine particles. 

C Air space. 



lO 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Loss of soil by the action of water. — The same processes 
that made the soil are continuing today. Material from 
higher levels is constantly being removed by water to lower 
levels. This not only appKes to the wearing away of rocks, 
but to that of the soil itself. One has only to observe the 
effect of a rain to see how readily the soil is washed from a 
hillside. The soil particles are carried by the smaher streams 
into the larger ones, and so on, until finally some are swept 




An illustration of erfect of erosion on a field. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

into the ocean. But all along particles are left by the water; 
by the slow waters in bends, on level stretches, and at the 
edges of the streams, especially as the waters of the streams 
get lower and the currents less swift. 

If the bottom land which has recently been covered with 
the water from an overflow of a stream is examined, it will 
be seen to be covered with fine sand and silt left there by the 
receding waters. This deposit has come from the land of 



THE SOIL II 

higher levels. The total amount of soil thus carried away is 
very great. It is claimed that if all the soil particles carried 
by the waters of the Mississippi River in one year were 
made into a solid rectangular block, it would cover one 
square mile and be 268 feet high. The amount of soil carried 
away by water varies with the slope of the land; the steeper 
the slope, the swifter the water current, and therefore the 
greater the quantity of soil material carried away. In hilly 
lands the loss of soil from the uplands is considerable, so much, 
indeed, that measures need to be taken to reduce the loss. 

Kinds of soil. — The size of the particles which make up 
the soil varies greatly. In some places most of the particles 
are sand, as in a sandy soil. In others, clay particles are 
most abundant, as in clay soil. Sometimes particles of clay 
and silt make up about half and sand the other half. Such 
soil is called a loam. If the mixture contains somewhat 
more fine particles than sand, the soil is known as a clay 
loam; but if more sand than silt and clay, it is called a sandy 
loam. These names, sandy, clay, loam, clay loam and sandy 
loam, are in common use in describing soils. 

We should now turn back and read again the first para- 
graph of this chapter and notice especially the last sentence 
in the paragraph. Rock particles alone, although they make 
up the soil mass, do not constitute a fertile soil. Air, water, 
and material for plant food are equally essential for plant 
growth. For this reason each of these should be considered 
in its relation to the soil, on the one hand, and to the plant 
on the other. In the next few chapters we shall try to learn 
something more about these relations. 



CHAPTER III 
SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 

Water in the Soil 

Why water is needed. — The importance of water for 
plant use has already been intimated in Chapter I. It is not 
only directly useful in the various ways noted in that chapter, 
but it has indirect benefits upon plant life almost as great. 

Water is a great solvent. That is, it has the power of 
changing substances from a solid condition to one known as 
a solution. A lump of sugar placed in a glass of water soon 
disappears as a solid. The sugar is held invisibly in some 
way by the water, for we know that water in which sugar is 
dissolved tastes sweet and when evaporated leaves a solid 
residue of sugar. This property of water — acting as a 
solvent — enables it to dissolve certain sohd substances of 
the soil so that they may pass in solution into the plant, 
the only possible way for them to enter. The same property 
enables the water to carry dissolved material from place to 
place in the soil, as from the depths to the surface when the 
water moves upward. 

Water also brings about changes in the position of the 
soil particles with reference to one another, making the soil 
in some instances granular, and in others more compact. 
This fact will be kept in mind as a further consideration of 
the action of water in the soil since it is an important one in 
connection with soil management. 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 



13 



Water has another property that is of importance in soil 
management. It has a large capacity for absorbing and 
retaining heat. This property is made use of in heating 
buildings by hot water systems. Water once heated remains 
hot for a long time, giving off heat slowly, but in sufficient 
quantities to keep the rooms of a building warm. Another 
illustration is found in the influence of large bodies of water, 




Diagram showing regions of capillary and free water. Note 
distribution of roots in area of capillary water. 

such as the Great Lakes, in tempering climate, making the 
shore regions warmer in winter and cooler in summer. 

Water in the soil influences its temperature — an important 
matter in crop production, especially in early spring when 
heat is needed to start plants to growing. Soils having a 
large capacity for holding water are called cold soils, because 
when filled with water which takes up heat slowly they 
remain cold long after soils having less capacity for holding 



14 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

water have become warm. Heavy clay is an example of a 
cold soil; it is not the clay but the water held by the clay 
that makes it slow to heat. Sandy soil, on the other hand, 
which holds but little water, is regarded as a warm soil. 

Another use for water in the soil is that it meets the need 
for moisture of certain microscopic plants, chiefly bacteria, 
that are always present in fertile soils. These organisms need 
water quite as much as other forms of life. 

How water is held by the soil. — In order to understand 
how the soil holds water, we must keep in mind the fact that 
it is largely made up of particles of rock. These particles are 
irregular in shape and size, so that spaces are left between 
them. The arrangement may be suggested by thinking of a 
number of rocks and bricks thrown loosely together. Here 
spaces of various sizes and shapes occur among the rocks 
and bricks just as they occur among soil particles, differing 
only in size. When these spaces are filled with water, the 
water is known as free water. When water appears at the 
surface of the soil or at lower levels, as when a hole in the 
ground becomes filled with water from adjoining soil spaces, 
it furnishes an example of free water. 

W"hen water clings to the surface of soil particles and is 
held in the sharp angles between them, but does not occupy 
the spaces, it is known as film or capillary water. If a pencil 
is dipped in water, the part coming in contact with water 
will become wet. Here the solid substance of the pencil 
attracts and holds a thin layer of water on its surface. It is 
m a similar way that solid particles of the soil hold films of 
water on their surfaces. Capillary water is important be- 
cause it is almost exclusively the form of water used by the 
plant. When the spaces of the soil in which the root of a 
plant is growing are filled with water, the air supply is cut 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 



15 



off from the roots and the plant suffers. It is largely for this 
reason that the water of the soil in the region of the roots 
should be capillary or film water, and not free water. 

Amount of water held by the soil. — We have seen that 
roots of plants rely on root-hairs to secure water and that the 
water must be in the form of capillary or film water. The 
quantity of capillary water held by the soil is important, 
for the amount that can be removed by the plant will depend 
upon the supply within easy reach of the roots. 

Soils differ greatly in their capacity to hold capillary water^ 
due to differences in the 
size of soil particles. If a 
piece of solid substance one 
cubic inch in size is put in 
water and then removed, a 
certain amount of water will 
adhere to each of its six 
sides or surfaces. If the 
cube be cut in half, it will 
present two additional sur- 
faces capable of holding a 
layer of water. By dividing the cube its power for holding 
film water is increased, although the amount of soKd material 
remains the same. Each division adds more surface; the 
greater the number of divisions, the greater the total surface 
provided for contact with water. The total surface of all the 
particles of a cubic foot of sandy loam has been estimated 
at 1.39 acres; of clay, 3.54 acres. 

A certain mass of coarse particles, such as sand, will have 
less total surface than a similar mass of silt or clay which 
consists of finer particles. Consequently, sand will hold less 
film water than either silt or clay. This fact is easily demon- 




Diagram showing relative amount of 
surface exposed by sand and clay. 

A. Sand. B. Clay. 



1 6 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

strated by filling two tin cans of the same size, having perfo- 
rated bottoms, one with dry sand, the other with dry, clay 
soil. After weighing, each can is saturated with water, and 
then allowed to drain. The water held in each can after 
draining will be mostly film water. When weighed again, 
the amount of film water in each may be determined by 
subtracting the first weight from the second. It will be found 
that the clay or fine soil has held more film water than the 
coarse soil. Sandy soil has a low water-holding capacity 
compared with clay or clay loam; its capacity may be in- 
creased by adding organic matter, such as manure, which 
retains a great deal of water. 

Clay and clay loam, because of the fineness of their parti- 
cles, retain relatively a large amount of film water, but they 
have a tendency to bake and become hard and cloddy after 
a rain. This tendency makes such soils difficult to handle. 
They are sometimes called heavy soils, not because they are 
really heavy but because they are hard to work. This is a 
serious difficulty, but one that may be overcome, in a large 
measure, by modifying the soil structure in such a way as 
to make it retain its capacity to hold water and, at the same 
time, make it more easily handled. 

How water moves downward in the soil. — When rain falls 
or snow melts the water has a tendency to move downward 
or percolate through the soil. This movement proceeds until 
the level of the free water below, known as the water table, 
is reached. As the free water accumulates, the water table 
rises until finally the upper surface of the soil is' reached. The 
soil is then saturated, all the spaces being filled with water. 
When more rain falls, the water either runs off or stands in 
puddles. This condition frequently occurs in early spring 
after the spring rains or melting of the winter snows. As 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 17 

the water near the surface evaporates or drains off, the water 
table is lowered leaving in the upper part of the soil only 
capillary water, the presence of which is favorable for seed 
germination and plant growth. 

The free water acts as a reservoir to be used later by the 
plants in the growing season when there may be less rainfall. 
It becomes important, therefore, to get a sufficient supply of 
free water into the soil during the time of heavy rains. We 
need to know in this connection something about how water 
moves downward in the soil, in order that measures may be 
taken to secure the greatest benefits from water that reaches 
the soil. 

The downward movement of water through the soil is 
caused by gravity. The rate, or rapidity of movement, 
depends upon the size of the soil particles. When one lamp 
chimney is filled with sand and another with clay, and water 
poured into each, it will be noticed that the water runs through 
the sand very quickly but through the clay very slowly. 
The rate of percolation in heavy soils is so slow that when 
rain falls on them, much of the water rims off instead of 
entering. This run-off not only results in the loss of water 
that might otherwise be stored up in the soil for future use, 
but takes with it some of the soil, another considerable loss. 

Sandy soils need no attention in this respect, since the 
water readily enters and rapidly sinks to lower levels. 

How water moves upward. — The oil in a lamp constantly 
moves along the wick and up to the flame. In a similar way 
water passes through a column of soil. This may be illustrated 
by filling a lamp chimney with sand and placing one end in a 
glass of water. Immediately the water will begin to rise in 
the sand, soon reaching the top. This action is known as 
capillarity. The soil particles or grains of sand nearest the 



i8 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



water draw films of water around them; these film^ extend 
to the next layer of particles, and so on until the surface is 
reached. If the lamp chimney is filled with clay, the water 
will pass upward very slowly, requiring perhaps several hours 
to reach the top. The rate of capillary rise evidently de- 
pends upon the size 
of the soil particles; 
the smaller the parti- 
cles, the slower the 
rate. 

The effect of the 
different sized parti- 
cles on capillary ac- 
tion is important in 
another way. If, in- 
stead of short lamp 
chimneys, long glass 
tubes filled with sand 
and clay are used, it 
will be seen that when 
water reaches a cer- 
tain height in the 
sand it will rise but 
will continue to rise 
In other words, the 




Diagram showing the relations of soil particles 
and water film to a root-hair. 

A. Root-hair. B. Soil particle. 

C. Film of water — thickened at angles. 

D. Air space. 

Arrows show direction that water takes. 



little higher, whereas in the clay it 
slowly for a distance of several feet 
lifting power of sand through capillarity is much less than 
that of clay. Clay soils are, therefore, able to draw water 
from greater depths than sandy soils, and consequently are 
less affected by dry weather than sandy soils, provided there 
is a supply of free water below. The great power of clay 
soils of lifting water by a capillary pull is somewhat offset 
by the slowness of its action. The same means suggested 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 



19 



for the improvement of such soils by securing more rapid 
percolation will also, to a certain extent, increase the rate of 
capillary action. 
How to prevent the loss of soil water. — There are two 



sources of loss of soil water, 
fails to enter the soil; the 
other is through evaporation 
of water at the surface. 

Loss of water through 
run-off may be reduced in 
two ways: improving the 
structure of heavy soils by 
securing granulation through 
the use of lime, organic 
matter, tillage, and drainage ; 
or modifying the surface in 



One is the run-off of water that 




^ 






Diagram showing various losses of 
water. 



A. Through plant and out at leaves. 

such a way that it will be Transpiration. . ^ ^ ^ ^ 

B. Evaporation from the surface of 
the soil. 

C. Run-off. 

D. Percolation. Drainage. 

E. Mulch preventing loss of water, 

F. Area of capillary water. 

G. Area of free water. 



difficult for water to run 
off — by fall plowing, mak- 
ing the furrows at right 
angles to the slope of the 
land. 

Loss of water through evaporation is shown by the drying 
of the upper layer of the soil. The extent of this lo*ss may be 
measured roughly by weighing a pan of damp soil, leaving it 
in the open air for a few days and then weighing it again. 
The difference in the two weights represents the loss by 
evaporation for this period. It is estimated that about one- 
half of the water reaching the soil by rainfall is lost through 
evaporation, unless some means is taken to prevent it. 

Since most of the water lost in this way is capillary water, 
the form absorbed by the root-hairs of plants, it is desirable 



20 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

to check the loss by some means. It will be noticed that the 
soil under a board or a similar covering is often damp, al- 
though the adjacent soil may appear quite dry. This suggests 
the use of some cover on the soil to prevent a loss of water. 
For such purpose, except in protecting certain valuable 
garden crops, boards are not practical because of the expense 
and labor. Straw is sometimes successfully used as a covering. 
But another much simpler and less expensive method is to 
stir, or otherwise pulverize, the upper two or three inches of 
the soil until it is finely divided. The finely-divided upper 
layer of soil serves the same purpose as a board or other 
covering and effectually checks the loss of water through 
evaporation. Such a covering is called a soil mulch and is 
always used in the best farm practice. 

How to make best use of a soil mulch. — There are a few 
things that should be kept in mind when using a soil mulch. 
First, the mulch should be as perfect as possible; that is, 
the part of the soil forming the mulch should be uniformly 
fine, without clods, but not fine enough to form a dust. 
Second, the mulch should be renewed from time to time, for 
the water is likely to ascend gradually from below through 
capillary attraction until the surface is reached and there 
evaporate. Third, the mulch is always destroyed by rain 
and therefore should be renewed after each rain. 

The series of farm operations necessary to prepare the soil 
is not complete until a good mulch is formed. If a crop is a 
cultivated one, like corn, it will be necessary to renew the 
mulch from time to time. Incidentally, if a good mulch is 
secured and maintained, weeds, which also occasion loss of 
water, will be kept down. 

How to bring water to the surface of the soil. — Some- 
times the upper part of the soil becomes so dry that it does 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 21 

not furnish a sufficient supply of water to germinate the seeds 
that have been planted. In such cases the soil particles are 
too far apart to allow capillary water to reach the seeds. 
Here the problem is how to restore the capillary action so as 
to bring water from below in sufficient quantities to secure 
germination. This may be accomphshed by forcing together 
the particles near the surface, by the use of a roller or by 
similar means. The broad wheels of a corn planter following, 
as they do, the grains of corn dropped before them, serve to 
pack or firm the soil at each hill. This establishes the capil- 
lary current, bringing the water where it is needed for germi- 




Effect of compacting soil. (Cornell Agr. Exp, Station.) 

nation. As soon as the firming of the soil has served its 
purpose, that is, when the seeds have germinated, the mulch 
should be restored; otherwise there will be a loss of water 
by evaporation which will offset the gain of quick germi- 
nation. 

How water may be controlled by drainage. — Drainage is 
an important means of controlling soil water, especially in 
heavy soils. The condition of the soil which often occurs 
in early spring has already been described. Here the free 
water interferes with working the soil by making it difficult 
or impossible to handle. It also interferes with the early 
development of the plants by keeping the soil cold, thereby 
preventing the rapid growth of the young plants as well as 



22 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



restricting their roots to a region near the surface above 
the water table. If the soil, in such condition, is undrained, 
there is no way for the surplus water to escape except through 
evaporation. But evaporation requires heat; consequently, 
the heat which otherwise might be used in warming the soil 
is used to evaporate water. Furthermore, the water table 
during the process is lowered so slowly that the roots of the 

young plants are kept 
near the surface of the 
ground, because they 
will not grow to any ex- 
tent in the free water 
below the water table. 
Later in the season, the 
water table drops to 
lower levels, but a gap 
is left between the free 
water below and the 
feeding area of the roots 

A. Early in season. Roots are kept near , mi t , 

the surface. above. The distance is 

B. Late in season. Plant suffers from often tOO great for a 
drought because of shallow roots not being able i r i. ^ u 
to reach area of capillary water. ^^PP^y ^^ ^ater to be 

lifted by capillary action 
to the region of the roots. Hence, plants in undrained soils 
frequently suffer from drought. 

Now, if the land is well drained, the water table is soon 
lowered by the removal of the surplus water through drainage 
instead of through evaporation. Thus the heat, which in un- 
drained land must be used to lower the water table by evapo- 
ration, is saved. At the same time, the water table is quickly 
lowered and plants are able to send their roots deeper into 
the soil. When the dry weather of the later season comes, 




Diagram of section of undrained soil. 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 



23 



the roots may then be deep enough to receive plenty of water 
from below through capillary action. Hence, we have the 
apparent paradox of supplying more water to plants by 
removing part of it. 

Soil management. — Proper soil management with refer- 
ence to water supply and control is difficult at best. It can 
be accomplished only by making intelligent use of the facts 
concerning soil water 

that have been pre- "i ^ B 

sented in this chapter. 
Further details of soil 
management will be 
considered in a chapter 
devoted to the subject. ^ :.r .V%" V- '. 1"^ 

Air in the Soil 

What soil air is. — 

Atmospheric air con- 
tains nearly 21 per cent 
of oxygen, 79 per cent 
of nitrogen, and .04 per deeper 

cent of carbon dioxide. ^- Late in season. Feeding area of roots 
f^ ., . ,.p^ . within region of capillary water. 

boil air differs from 

the free air above, in the respect that it has less oxygen and 
from 5 to 75 times as much carbon dioxide. Plant roots and 
decaying organic matter produce enough carbon dioxide to 
account for this difference. 

How air is held in the soil. — The soil spaces which are 
not occupied by water are filled with air. The presence of 
air in the soil may be shown by pouring water into a vessel 
containing soil. When the water enters, bubbles of air will 




Diagram of section of drained soil. 

A. Early in season. Free water removed 
from upper level permitting roots to grow 



24 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

be forced out by the water. In a similar way the amount of 
air in a certain soil mass may be determined by measuring 
the volume of water needed to crowd out or replace the air. 
Since the water takes the place of the air the volume of water 
used represents the volume of air present in the soil before 
the water was added. 

The amount of air in the soil not always the same. — Since 
air is in the spaces between the soil particles, the amount of 
it will depend upon the size and number of these spaces and 
upon the degree to which they may be filled with water. 
The latter point is important, because the air in the upper 
part of the soil, where it is most needed, can be con- 
trolled to a certain extent by regulating the amount of free 
water. 

Why there is a need for soil air. — Attention has been 
called to the fact that the roots need oxygen all the time just 
as much as other parts of the plant. In order to meet this 
need of oxygen the soil should be well aerated. 

Soil aeration is important for other reasons. First, there 
are certain useful bacteria that help to make the soil more 
fertile. These bacteria need oxygen, and when the roots of 
plants are provided with oxygen, the bacteria are served at 
the same time. There are other bacteria that need nitrogen 
as well as oxygen. As the air is about four-fifths nitrogen 
which is thoroughly mixed with oxygen, there will always be 
a good supply of nitrogen in well-aerated soils. 

Second, carbon dioxide always present in free air and more 
abundant in soil air is absorbed by the soil water, thus giving 
the water a greater solvent power than when pure. It is 
then able to dissolve more soil material which is useful to 
plants than it otherwise would. It is possible that too much 
carbon dioxide may prove injurious to the roots of the plants, 



SOIL WATER AND SOIL AIR 25 

but this is not likely to occur, especially when the soil is 
well aerated. 

How the air is supplied. — Any operation that will provide 
soil spaces, which allow air to enter the soil readily, will keep 
the soil well supphed with air. As a rule, sandy soils present 
no difficulty, because the large soil spaces between the parti- 
cles allow air to enter freely. On the other hand, heavy soils, 
such as clay and clay loam, having small spaces between the 
particles, need some modification. By producing a granular 
condition in the upper part of the soil, the spaces will be 
enlarged enough to allow air an easier access. If good drainage 
is provided, the water passing into the drain will be replaced 
by air. Granulation and drainage are important for other 
reasons, some of which have been given; others will be 
considered later. 



CHAPTER IV 
PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 

What plant food is. — While the plant really makes its 
own food from certain simple substances as was shown in 
Chapter I, the expression " plant food," as commonly under- 
stood, refers especially to those substances that are taken 
from the soil and used by the plant. These are water and 
certain soluble compounds containing elements necessary to 
plant growth. Some of these elements are actually used to 
make food, and others though not used as food are quite as 
essential, as shown by the fact that plants will not grow 
without them. The following is the entire Kst of elements: 
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, chlorine, mag- 
nesium, iron, and sulfur. 

The last four of the list are used in such small quantities 
that the natural supply in the soil is relatively abundant. 
But one or more of the first four — nitrogen, phosphorus, 
potassium, and calcium — may not be available in sufficient 
amounts to afford plants their best development. For this 
reason it will be worth while to consider them separately. 

Nitrogen 

Supply of nitrogen. — There are three sources for the 
supply of nitrogen in farm practice: the organic matter, or 
humus, found in naturally fertile soils, in crop residues, and 
in manure; the atmospheric nitrogen made available for 

26 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 27 

plant use by certain bacteria, chiefly those occurring on the 
roots of such crops as clover; certain products rich in nitrogen 
that are sold as commercial fertilizer. 

Value of organic matter. — In the early days of farming 
the soil was treated as if it were inexhaustible; crops were 
taken off year after year without a thought of returning to 
the soil any equivalent of the plant food removed. As a 
consequence, the yield became less and less until finally the 
farms became unprofitable. They were rightly called " worn- 
out " farms and were often abandoned. Abandoned farms 
are still found in some parts of the Eastern States. One 
practice, which more than anything else brought about a 
decrease in yield, was the removal of the organic matter. 
This practice made farming hard for two reasons; it reduced 
granulation and the water-holding capacity of the soil, and 
depleted the store of nitrogen. Many worn-out farms have 
been brought back to fertility by being liberally suppHed 
with organic matter. 

Making the nitrogen of organic matter available for plant 
use. — The presence of bacteria in fertile soils has been 
referred to several times. Bacteria are very small plants, so 
small that the aid of a good microscope is necessary to see 
them at all. It would require many thousands in line to 
span an inch. But they make up for their small size by 
their great numbers. It is estimated that a cubic centimeter 
of rich soil will contain from 500,000 to 5,000,000. 

Some of these bacteria are able to convert the complex 
and insoluble compounds of organic matter containing nitro- 
gen into simple, soluble compounds of nitrogen, chiefly 
nitrates. Nitrates, being soluble, are readily absorbed by 
plants. 

Bacterial action is required in order to make available for 



28 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



plant use nitrogen and perhaps other food material found 
in humus, manure and crop residue, such as straw. The 
series of changes brought about by the action of bacteria on 
the content of organic matter is called nitrification. There 
are some conditions favorable to nitrification that should be 
understood. The presence of water and oxygen is essential. 
Any treatment of the soil that will secure plenty of water 
and oxygen in its upper surface will be favorable to nitri- 
fication. It is also true 
that water and oxygen 
are essential for the best 
development of crops. 
Some of the methods 
of controlling the water 
supply and of aerating 
the soil have already 
been considered. 

Source of organic mat- 
ter on the farm. — The 
most common and most 




A common example of how manure may 
lose much of its value as a fertilizer. (Indiana 
Agr. Exp. Station.) 



valuable form of organic matter that accumulates on the 
farm is stable and barnyard manure. Straw, cornstalks, and 
other crop residue are also valuable. Certain heavy crops, 
such as rye and cowpeas, are sometimes grown as green 
manure, for the express purpose of adding organic matter 
to the soil. 

Value of manure. — Barnyard and stable manure is not 
only rich in nitrogen, but also contains a considerable amount 
of phosphorus and potassium. The money value of these 
three elements alone is estimated at $2.00 or more, per ton. 
The total value of the annual production of manure in the 
United States has been roughly estimated at $800,000,000 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 



29 



and more than one-half of it said to be wasted. The presence 
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in manure does not 
represent its entire value. When mixed with soil, it increases 
the water-holding capacity if the soil is hght, and promotes 
granulation if the soil is 
heavy. At the same time 
it brings into the soil count- 
less bacteria that are use- 
ful in liberating or making 
available plant food, par- 
ticularly nitrogen. 

How to prevent loss of 
nitrogen from manure. — 
Since manure is of so much 
value, all possible measures 
should be taken to prevent its waste. In order to make 
clear a means of preventing or reducing the losses of nitrogen 
from manure we need first to consider what takes place in an 
_ ordinary pile of manure 

when it is left in the 
open. In such cases 




Diagram of a manure pile showing 
how nitrogen may be lost. 




decay and putrefaction 
rapidly occur through 
^" the action of bacteria. 
Among the final results 

Diagram of a concrete pit for storing ma- r -i 7 . • v 

nure. If the pit is water-tight there will be of thlS action IS the 

little loss of plant food, especially if the change of nitrogen Com- 
manure is kept well packed. . . . , 

pounds mto simpler ones 
known as nitrates. Nitrates are quite soluble and are, there- 
fore, easily washed away as the water from rains passes 
through the heap. Nitrates in the lower part of the pile 
that do not escape in this way may be broken up by other 



30 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



kinds of bacteria into ammonia and free nitrogen which pass 
into the air as gases. Ammonia is often so plentiful around 
stables that it may be detected by its odor. 

The loss of nitrogen may be greatly reduced if the formation 
of nitrates can be prevented. Since nitrates are formed by 
certain bacteria which must have oxygen, an easy method is 
suggested for preventing their formation; that is, to make 
conditions unfavorable by excluding air. This may be ac- 
complished by making the pile as compact as possible, ex- 
cluding the air by tramping or otherwise pressing the material 
together as it accumulates. The walls of the pile should be 
nearly perpendicular, so as to reduce the action of rain and 
avoid loss by leaching. 

A better plan would be to keep the manure under cover. 
A practice frequently followed in England and sometimes in 
this country is a good one. The stables are provided with 
deep stalls furnished with plenty of straw for bedding. The 
straw absorbs the liquid wastes and is under cover, and as 
the manure accumulates it is also thoroughly packed by the 
tramping of the animals. 

Another method of preventing the deterioration of manure 
is to spread it on the fields as rapidly as it accumulates. This 
practice is comparatively easy if manure spreaders are used. 
It is said that a manure spreader will pay for itself in less than 
two years by preventing loss of nitrogen and by saving labor. 
After the manure is spread upon the field the formation of 
nitrates is an advantage rather than a disadvantage, for they 
pass into the soil where they are needed as they are formed. 

Use of legumes for supplying nitrogen. — Legumes are 
those plants which belong to the pea family. Some common 
examples are peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, and vetch. If one 
of these plants is dug up and its roots examined carefully, 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 31 

they will be found swollen into knots in some places. These 
knots are called root nodules and are characteristic of legumes. 
Each nodule contains bacteria of a kind known as nitrogen- 
fixing bacteria. They have the power of using the free nitrogen 
of the soil-air and building it up or fixing it into simple nitro- 
gen compounds, such as nitrates. 

But the nodules do not always form on the roots of legumes. 




Photograph of roots of red clover showing nodules of nitrogen- 
fixing bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria greatly enlarged. (Wis- 
consin Agr, Exp. Station.) 

This may be the case when an attempt is made to grow the 
legumes on a soil where they have never been grown before. 
In such cases the soil must be inoculated. 

By soil inoculation is meant the process of transferring to 
the soil nitrogen-fixing bacteria enough to start nodules on 
the roots of the young legumes. One method is to scatter 
over the field to be planted some of the soil taken from an- 



32 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

other field, where the same or a similar kind of legume has 
been growing. For example, to establish alfalfa in a place 
where it has never grown before, soil should be taken from 
a field of vigorously growing alfalfa, and uniformly scattered 
over the new area to be planted, at the rate of about i6o 
pounds to the acre; or inoculating material may be obtained 
from a soil on which sweet clover is growing. Owing to the 
destructive action of the sun's rays on bacteria it is important 
to spread the inoculating material during a cloudy day and 
to work it into the soil immediately. 

Another method is to treat the seed of a legume, before 
sowing, with a solution containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 
Material for this method of inoculation, together with de- 
tailed directions for use, may be obtained from a State Ag- 
ricultural Experiment Station, or from a commercial firm 
recommended by the Station. 

The use of legumes for maintaining soil fertility cannot be 
overestimated. They are also a valuable crop for feeding 
farm animals. On every farm a rotation should be established 
which will include a leguminous crop every few years, never 
more than five years apart. The selection of a particular 
legume may depend upon the use for which it is intended 
and upon its adaptability to climate and soil. In some 
places it may be clover; in others, alfalfa; in another, cow- 
peas or soy beans; the important thing is to include some 
kind of legume in a rotation. 

Commercial fertilizers as a source of nitrogen. — If nitro- 
gen cannot be maintained in the soil in the ways described, 
as a last resort it may be purchased in the form of a fertilizer; 
but it will be found more expensive than any other kind of 
commercial fertilizer. Therefore it should be supplied in 
other ways whenever possible. The use of nitrogen in the 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 33 

form of a commercial fertilizer may be sometimes justified 
in spite of its expense. It may be used when nitrogen cannot 
be secured through the use of manure and rotation of crops; 
or when it is desirable to give a crop an especially good start, 
as corn in early spring, or wheat in the fall. In such case the 
nitrogen is added for its immediate effect. It is at once 
available for plant use; whereas, in early spring, the natural 
supply of available nitrogen is small due to the effect of cold 
on bacterial action; and in the fall, because the preceding 
crop has partially exhausted the supply. In such cases the 
supply of phosphorus and potassium may also be limited, 
and the use of a complete fertilizer — one containing all three 
elements — would be justified. But whethei nitrogen is 
used alone or in a complete fertilizer, a light application is 
generally more profitable than a heavy one. 

Nitrogen may be supphed from certain substances (called 
carriers) that contain it. Nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, 
and dried blood are always safe to use and are really eco- 
nomical even though they may seem expensive, since they 
are readily available for plant use. 

Phosphorus 

■ The supply of phosphorus. — There is a limited supply of 
phosphorus in most soils. A small amount occurs in manure 
and in other organic material, but not in sufficient quantities, 
as used in ordinary farm practice, to offset the amount re- 
moved by crops. It must be bought and added to the soil 
from time to time. Since it must be bought, economy in 
buying should be considered. 

How to secure phosphorus. — The chief source of 
phosphorus is certain mineral deposits known as phosphate 



34 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

rock; some is also supplied by the bones of animals. Bones 
are rich in phosphorus. Rich deposits of phosphate rock 
occur in several parts of the country, as in Utah, Tennessee, 
South CaroHna, and Florida. These rocks may be finely 
ground and sold as rock phosphate; or, after being ground, 
may be treated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting product 
sold as acid phosphate. The distinction between ground- 



COMPARATIVE: yields on heavy clay 50IL5 
CLOVER HAY 



MANURE 



MANURE AND ROCK PHOSPHATE 



P0TAT0E5 



MANURE^ 



MANURE AND ROC K PH05 PH ATE 



Increase 

43 Per Cent 



Increase 
47 PER Cent 



Chart showing increase in yield of wheat on heavy day soil by use of 
manure and rock phosphate as compared with yield when manure alone 
was used. (Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Station.) 

rock phosphate and acid phosphate must be clearly under- 
stood. Rock phosphate is insoluble and not immediately 
available for plant use. Acid phosphate, on the other hand, 
is soluble and therefore available at once for the plant to 
use. If quick results are desired from the use of a phosphate 
fertilizer, acid phosphate should be chosen. 

When and how to use rock phosphate. — Ground phosphate 
rock has a market value of about one-third that of acid 
phosphate. Owing to this fact, it would seem advisable to 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 



35 




use the cheaper form, if its application secures favorable 
results compared with those obtained by the use of acid 
phosphate. As has been stated, the quick action due to 
solubility must not be expected of phosphate rock. There 
is a question whether the use of rock phosphate fertilizer is 
ever warranted. There is good authority for believing that 
its use under certain circumstances does give results equal, 
or nearly equal, to those obtained from acid phosphate and 
at less cost. It is 
supposed that rock 
phosphate becomes 
slowly available for 
plant use through the 
action of bacteria in 
the presence of an 
abundance of organic 
matter. 

In practice, as ma- 
nure accumulates, on equal areas, 
finely ground rock ^^^^-^ 
phosphate is mixed with it; later, when the mixture is apphed 
to the land and plowed under, the rock phosphate becomes 
thoroughly incorporated with the soil along with the organic 
matter of the manure. If the soil is not already rich in lime, 
lime or limestone should also be liberally applied. The 
insoluble phosphate seems to be changed into a soluble form, 
though so slowly that the effect of the fertilizer does not 
begin to show much until the second season; but from this 
time on for a few years, it seems to have the same effect as 
acid phosphate. The slowness of action may not be a serious 
matter, for in good farm practice permanent fertility of the 
soil is of more importance than the results of one season. 



Diagram showing yield of potatoes. Ma- 
nure and rock phosphate produced a yield 
47 per cent greater than that of manure alone 
(Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta- 



36 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Besides, in order to hasten matters acid phosphate may be 
appHed as a phosphate fertihzer for the use of the first season's 
crop. 

It has recently been suggested that the phosphoric acid of 
phosphate rock may be made available for plant use by 
mixing it with calcium sulfate, or land plaster. This claim 
seems to be supported by some experiments made by the 
Oregon State Agricultural Experiment Station. If this 
method should be proved successful by experiments in differ- 
ent parts of the country under a variety of soil and cKmatic 
conditions, it might become worth while in general farm 
practice. To be of practical value, however, the combined 
cost of the calcium sulfate and phosphate rock should be 
less than the cost of acid phosphate enough to yield an equiva- 
lent amount of phosphoric acid. 



Potassium 

The supply of potassium. — Potassium occurs in soils 
usually in considerable abundance, except in very sandy and 
muck soils,. Not much of it is available because it is in- 
soluble. It seems to be demonstrated by recent experiments 
that insoluble potassium may be made available through a 
liberal supply of organic matter. It is a question whether 
this method of supplying potassium may be wholly relied 
upon to furnish all that is needed by crops. It may be worth 
trying however, for even if it should fail to render much 
potassium available, it will leave the soil improved because 
of the addition of organic matter. 

Potassium occurs in large deposits in a few places in the 
world, the most extensive being found in Germany and in 
Alsace, France. Until recently most of our potash fertilizers 



PLANT FOOD AND SOIL FERTILITY 



37 



have been imported from Germany. During the Great War 
when importation was cut off, an increasing amount of po- 
tassium was suppHed from a number of sources: among 




Diagram showing increase in yield of wheat where fertilizers were used 
as contrasted with yields on similar areas where no fertilizers were used. 
(Ohio State Agr. College.) 



them, sea weed or kelp, found • in great quantities in the 
Pacific Ocean; mineral deposits in old lake beds, as in Searles 
Lake, California; wood ashes; and the by-products of such 
industrial processes as the making of cement and washing of 
wool. It seems probable that, in time, a means will be found 



38 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

in the United States to supply most of the potassium needed 
for our farms. 

Potassium, as a commercial fertilizer, is usually supplied 
in the form of potassium chloride or muriate of potash, 
sulfate of potassium, and kainit. The first two contain 
about fifty per cent of potash; kainit, or mineral potash, 
contains from twelve to twenty per cent. The word potash 
is used by chemists to express the amount of potassium in a 
chemical analysis. 

For certain special crops such as potatoes and tobacco 
which have large potash requirements, it is a good practice 
to apply some form of fertilizer containing potash. (The 
buying and use of commercial fertilizers will be considered in 
greater detail in the next chapter.) 

Calcium 

The supply of calcium. — Plants require but Httle calcium 
for their growth. The store of calcium in most soils is suf- 
ficient to supply the actual needs of the plant. The chief 
value to a soil of substances containing calcium, such as 
limestone or lime, is an indirect one — they neutralize soil 
acids. There are plants, such as legumes, which will not 
grow w^ell in acid soils. There are other important effects 
of calcium (in the form of lime or limestone) on soils which 
will be discussed in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER V 
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND SOIL AMENDMENTS 

Commercial Fertilizers 

What is meant by commercial fertilizer. — The term com- 
mercial fertilizer has already been used several times in 
discussing plant food. It always refers to those substances 
containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, which are 
bought and used as fertilizer. A complete fertilizer is one 
that contains all three of these components — nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash. Its composition is generally in- 
dicated by figures representing the available amounts of the 
three ingredients as shown by a chemical analysis, and is 
expressed in percentage. 

The order is always (i) nitrogen; (2) phosphoric acid; 
(3) potash. For example, a 2-8-4 fertilizer is one contain- 
ing 2 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, 4 per 
cent potash. 

The production of commercial fertilizers has become a 
large industry in this country. The annual sales in normal 
times amount to over $100,000,000, most of this amount 
being spent for complete fertilizers. In many states the sale 
is regulated by law. A chemical analysis of. each br^and is 
required, and this guaranteed analysis must be made public. 
It must appear on each package of fertilizer for sale, usually 
on a tag attached to the package, and may be printed in a 
bulletin or circular for free distribution. In this way both 

39 



40 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

the farmer and the honest manufacturer are protected. 
Even with this safeguard, the farmer may be misled if he is 
unable to understand the meaning of the analysis when he 
reads it. 

Meaning of a fertilizer analysis. — The record of a fertil- 
izer analysis, as it appears on a package, may at first seem 
confusing, especially if a complete analysis is given. A 
simple rule, easily followed, is to consider only the lowest 
stated amounts of available, or soluble, ingredients. The 
following is an example of an analysis on a fertilizer tag with 
an apphcation of the rule: 

Analysis 

Nitrogen i . 64 to 2 . 46 per cent 

Nitrogen as ammonia 2.00 " 3.00 

Soluble phosphoric acid 5-oo " 6.00 " " 

Reverted phosphoric acid 3 -oo " 4.00 '' " 

Insoluble phosphoric acid i .00 " 2 .00 " " 

Total phosphoric acid 10.00 *' 12 .00 " " 

Phosphate of lime 22.00" 24.00 " " 

Available pJiosphoric acid 8.00 " 10.00 " " 

Potash 3 .00 " 4.00 " " 

Sulfate of potash i . 64 " 2 . 46 " " 

Applying the rule, 1.64 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent 
phosphoric acid, and 3 per cent potash are the only items to 
be considered. In each case the lowest amount is taken, 
for there is no guarantee that the higher percentage will be 
found, although it may be. 

Ordinarily the analysis as indicated on a fertilizer tag is 
not presented in as much detail as the above example. The 
form of the certificate printed at the top of the following page 
illustrates a more common practice: 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 41 

No. 10456 

JOHN DOE & COMPANY, 

of Lafayette, Ind., 

Guarantee this 

Doe's Grain and Clover Producer 

to contain not less than 
1.6 per cent, of total nitrogen, (N). 
2.0 per cent, of potash, (K2O), 

soluble in water, 
8.0 per cent, of soluble and reverted 

phosphoric acid, (P2O5), and 
2.0 per cent, of insoluble phosphoric 
acid, (P2O5). 

P^'^due S~^~K^t 

Experiment 

Station, 

LaFayette, Ind. State Chemist. 

How to estimate the value of a fertilizer. — It is the 

custom in most states for the state department having 
control of fertilizer inspection to make annually an estimate 
of the value, per pound, of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash. These values may be obtained by writing to the 
State Agricultural Experiment Station. For example, in 1921, 
the estimate prepared in Indiana was 20 cents per pound for 
nitrogen, 7.5 cents for phosphoric acid, and 7.5 cents for potash. 
The figures obtained from state authorities may be used to 
determine the relative values of similar mixtures offered for 
sale by different manufacturers, or of different mixtures sold 
by one manufacturer. They may, in some cases, roughly 
indicate what a reasonable selling price should be. 

Taking the analysis of the fertilizer given in the example, 
a ton (2000 lbs.) will contain: 

Nitrogen 1.64 per cent ( 32.8 lbs. at 20 cts.) $6.56 

Phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent (160 lbs. at 7.5 cts.) 12.00 

Potash 3.00 per cent ( 60 lbs. at 7.5 cts.) 4.50 

Total value $23.06 

To this amount should be added enough to cover reasonable 
expenses and profit of the dealer. ^ 



42 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

If another similar brand should have a calculated value 
of $22.00, and another of $25.00, these three brands should 
sell at nearly the same price. A difference of five dollars 
in the price would be unreasonable, for all three are relatively 
the same in value. 

Prices of fertilizers vary from year to year. Those quoted 
in the above example have not reached the pre-war level but 
they serve to illustrate the method of an approximate deter- 
mination of the vaJue of a fertilizer. 

Home mixing of fertilizers. — Where large amounts of 
fertilizers are used, it is often more economical to buy the 
ingredients separately and mix them at home. A clean floor, 
a shovel, and a pair of scales with which to weigh the correct 
amount of each ingredient, are necessary. 

After the ingredients have been weighed, the lumps should 
be pulverized and the material thoroughly mixed. The 
method of calculating the amounts is as follows : 

All calculations are based upon the percentages of nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash in the materials purchased. The following are 
the percentages of the most common forms of fertilizing materials: 

Nitrate of soda, 16 per cent nitrogen. 

Sulfate of ammonia, 20 per cent nitrogen. 

Dried blood, 10 per cent nitrogen. 

Acid phosphate, 14 to 16 per cent phosphoric acid (the guaranteed 
analysis will give the exact percentage). 

Muriate of potash, 50 per cent potash (the guaranteed analysis will 
give the percentage of potash in other forms of potash). 

The amount of nitrogen in a ton (2000 pounds) of nitrate of soda is 
found by taking 16 per cent of 2000. (2000 X .16 = 320.) A ton of 
nitrate of soda will therefore contain 320 pounds of nitrogen. 

If a ton of a mixture containing 2 per cent of nitrogen is wanted, the 
quantity of nitrate of soda needed to furnish this amount of nitrogen 
(2 per cent) may be found as follows: A ton (2000 pounds) containing 
2 per cent of nitrogen will have 2 per cent of 2ocxd (2000 X .02 = 40), or 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 43 

40 pounds of nitrogen. Since nitrate of soda contains 16 per cent 
nitrogen, one pound of nitrate of soda will contain .16 of a pound of 
nitrogen (i X .16= .16). Therefore as many pounds of nitrate of soda 
will be required to furnish 40 pounds of nitrogen as .16 is contained in 
40 (40 -T- .16= 250), or 250 pounds. 

Similar calculations can be made of phosphoric acid and of potash 
by substituting 14 per cent for phosphoric acid and 50 per cent for potash. 

Suppose a ton of a 4-8-3 fertiUzer is to be made, how much nitrate 
of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of potash will be needed? First, 
find the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in 
a ton of a 4-8-3 fertilizer: 

2000 X .04 = 80, or 80 pounds of nitrogen. 

2000 X .08 = 160, or 160 pounds of phosphoric acid. 

2000 X .03 = 60, or 60 pounds of potash. 

Next, find the amounts of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate 
of potash necessary to furnish the required number of pounds of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash: 

80 ^ .16 = 500, or 500 pounds of nitrate of soda needed to furnish 
80 pounds of nitrogen. 

160-^ -14= 1142.8, or 1142.8 pounds of acid phosphate needed to 
furnish 160 pounds of phosphoric acid. 

60 ^ -50 = 120, or 120 pounds of muriate of potash needed to furnish 
60 pounds of potash. 

The cost of such a mixture may be easily found by multi- 
plying the calculated amount of each ingredient by its average 
market price per pound, and finding the sum of the products. 

When buying the ingredients for home mixing, better 
rates may be obtained by buying in car-load lots. The 
saving is not only on the original cost but also in the reduction 
of freight charges. 

Soil Amendments 

What a soil amendment is. — Certain substances are often 
added to the soil for the purpose of improving it physically 



44 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

by making its structure more favorable for crop production, 
and for the purpose of promoting chemical and bacterial 
action. The most valuable of these substances is lime, al- 
though land plaster, common salt, and others may be used 
occasionally. 

How lime benefits the soil. — Some of the calcium which 
occurs in lime is needed by plants as plant food, but lime 
has other important uses also that make its presence in the 
soil desirable. Lime is used to bring about granulation in 
clay soil; to liberate or make available such plant-food 
materials as potash; to neutralize soil acids; and to aid useful 
soil bacteria in their work. 

Acid soils. — Whether or not a soil is acid is of considerable 
importance, for most farm plants do not grow well upon acid 
soils. Legumes, such as alfalfa and red clover, are especially 
sensitive to soil acids. A soil is regarded as an acid soil (i) 
when acids are actually present in injurious amounts, or 
(2) when the soil is deficient in lime. In either case an appli- 
cation of lime is needed to restore favorable conditions for 
the growth of plants of greatest value in general farming. 

How to know when lime is needed. — Even in limestone 
regions lime is often lacking in the soil, particularly on old 
farms. It is a safe practice to test the soil of each field in 
order to determine whether lime is present or not. There 
are several simple tests that may be applied. The following 
is suggested: Add several drops of a weak acid, such as 
dilute hydrochloric acid, to a handful of the soil; if small 
bubbles of gas appear the presence of lime is indicated; if 
no bubbles appear and there seems to be no action of the 
acid on the soil, the absence of lime is indicated. 

How to lime the soil. — Experience has shown that finely 
ground limestone is the most economical and satisfactory 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 45 

form in which to apply lime. Air-slacked lime may also be 
used when it can be obtained without too much expense. 
Unslacked lime is not only more expensive than ground lime- 
stone, but is likely to do more harm than good by destroying 
the organic matter with which it comes into contact. If 
limestone is appKed, it should be at a rate of about two tons 
per acre the first year, omitted the second year, and one- 
half ton each year thereafter. Some farmers prefer to make 
a larger appKcation each four or five years. If water-slacked 
lime is used, only three-fourths as much is needed. There 
is some difficulty in applying hme to the land, but this has 
been largely overcome by the use of lime spreaders especially 
designed for this work. 



CHAPTER VI 
SOIL MANAGEMENT 

What soil management is. — We have seen that plants 
require water, in the form of capillary water with a reserve 
of free water below; oxygen; certain food materials; and a 
sufficiently loose arrangement of the soil particles to permit 
roots to push their way through easily. When soil is in good 
condition to furnish and continue to furnish these require- 
ments for plant growth, it is said to be in good tilth. Soil 
in good tilth is somewhat difficult to describe. " It is porous 
but not too loose; firm but not hard or consoHdated; close- 
grained but not run together nor adhesive." Securing and 
maintaining good tilth and sufficient amounts of food materials 
for plant growth is the object of soil management. Three 
aspects need to be considered somewhat in detail: the means 
employed in farm practice; ,the special problems presented 
by variation in soils; the relation of systems of farming to 
soil management. 

How Good Tilth is Secured and Maintained 

In general farm practice there are several means employed 
to secure proper soil conditions. Among the most important 
are drainage, tillage, rotation of crops, use of barnyard and 
green manure, and application of lime. 

Drainage. — Drainage has been referred to by a soil expert 
as " the foundation of good soil management." This state- 

46 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 47 

ment may be better appreciated by summarizing the various 
effects of drainage. Some of these effects have already been 
considered; such as modifying the soil temperature, securing 
a larger feeding area for roots of plants and a better soil 
ventilation. To these may be added : modifying the structure 
of heavy soils so as to make them granular and porous; 
affording conditions favorable for action of bacteria in chang- 
ing organic matter into available plant food; making it 
possible for larger amounts of natural plant food of the 
soil minerals to become soluble. On the whole, drainage may 
be considered as the first essential of a productive soil. 

It will be seen from this list that drainage is the means of 
helping to secure a variety of conditions, each of which is 
important in plant production. 

Tillage. — A well-drained soil, important as it is, will not 
produce satisfactorily unless it is well tilled. The soil must 
be properly worked and handled in order to secure the best 
results from good drainage. Each operation of tillage, such 
as plowing, disking, rolling, and cultivation, has a definite 
purpose in rendering the soil productive, and each must be 
done at the right time and in the right way to become the 
most effective. Plowing when the soil is just right as to 
moisture content increases the amount of granulation, a 
condition which has been referred to as good tilth. Disking 
and harrowing further increase granulation until the seed- 
bed is made ready to receive the seed. Rolling may prepare 
the ground in some instances for more effective use of the 
harrow, or after the seed is in the ground, it may make the 
soil in the seed-bed compact, thereby bringing moisture 
from below and thus hastening germination. Finally, culti- 
vation forms a mulch which prevents the loss of water 
through evaporation. 

f 
I 



48 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

It is through tillage that the greatest effort is expended 
in helping plants to secure their needs for growth and de- 
velopment. Much skill and intelUgence are needed in order 
that the expenditure of time and energy may be most ef- 
fective. 

Rotation of crops. — By crop rotation is meant a system 
of planting in which there is a change of crops on the same 
soil from year to year. There are a number of advantages to 
be secured by a proper rotation of crops. Some have already 
been noticed, such as legumes in rotation for fixing the atmos- 
pheric nitrogen into compounds available for other crops. 
Others are to be considered in discussing cropping systems. 
But crop rotation has also some direct effects on the soil 
that deserve attention in soil management. Roots of plants 
affect soil structure, especially in clay soils, by making it 
more open and porous. Some plants, such as barley, millet, 
and wheat, are shallow- rooted; some, such as clover, alfalfa, 
and sugar beets, are deep-rooted; others, such as corn and 
oats, are neither very shallow nor very deep. A rotation of 
crops having different root depths would do more to improve 
soil structure than a rotation of crops having similar root 
systems. 

The greatest effect of crop rotation on soil improvement is 
gained by alternating tilled crops, such as corn or cotton, 
with untilled crops, such as clovers and grasses. In this kind 
of rotation tillage will bring about a thorough mingling in 
the soil of the roots and crop residue of the previous, untilled 
crop. 

Barnyard and green manure. — The value of organic matter 
in increasing the water-holding capacity of the soil and 
keeping up the nitrogen supply has already been emphasized. 
Organic matter derived from either barnyard or green manure 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 49 

improves the structure of soils; those of coarse texture Hke 
sand, by fiUing up the large spaces; those of fine texture like 
clay, by separating the fine particles and also by inducing 
granulation. 

Lime. — The various benefits of lime were summed up in 
the previous chapter in the discussion of soil amendments. 
Attention is called to it here, because it is especially useful 
in modifying soil structure and should therefore be considered 
in any discussion of soil management. In dealing with sandy 
soils a Hght application of lime tends to make them more 
compact; in clay soils a heavy apphcation promotes granu- 
lation. 

Variation in Soils 

Soils differ greatly not only in different locaKties but in 
parts of the same locality. There are all variations from 
almost pure sand in very light soils to almost pure clay in 
very heavy soils. 

The Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of 
Agriculture has made a very complete study and classification 
of the soils of the entire country; maps have also been pre- 
pared showing the distribution of various soils in several 
counties of each state. Several of the great agricultural 
states, like the state of Illinois, have supplemented the work 
of the Bureau by more extensive and detailed description of 
soils within the state. These two sources of information 
concerning the kinds of soils and their distribution are 
mentioned because of their value for reference in the study 
of soils in any particular locahty. Other information to 
assist in such study may often be obtained from the State 
Agricultural Experiment Station, and sometimes from the 
State Department of Geology. 



50 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Space will not permit a description of the entire list of 
soils included in the classification made by the United States 
Bureau of Soils. It will be sufficient in this brief discussion 
of soil management to include only those already mentioned; 
sandy, sandy loam, clay, and clay loam. 

Sandy soils. — We have seen that these soils are composed 
of coarse particles. Such soils are easily worked and are 
therefore valuable for special kinds of farming, such as truck 
farming, where much work with hand tools is required. 
They are also easily warmed, a property that is very desirable 
when a long growing season or an early crop is needed. This 
property is due to the fact that water readily drains from 
sandy soils, so that most of the heat received from the sun 
is used in increasing their warmth instead of in evaporating 
the water. Crops may often be started in sandy soils two 
weeks earher than in heavier soils. 

But sandy soils have two serious defects; a small water- 
holding capacity, and an insufficient store of plant-food 
materials. To correct these defects is the greatest problem 
in the management of sandy soils. 

The water-holding capacity may be increased by the 
application of organic matter, such as manure. Such material 
is capable of holding a large amount of capillary water. 
Besides, when it fills the spaces between the larger particles 
of sand, the water-holding power of the sand itself is increased. 
To a certain extent, water may be controlled by handling the 
soil in such way as to keep the particles close together, es- 
pecially by plowing and rolling. If a plow with a sloping 
moldboard is used in plowing sandy soils, the furrow slice 
will be turned without breaking much, thus tending to make 
the soil more or less compact. The use of the roller after 
leveling the ground with a harrow will also aid in compacting 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 51 

the soil. These three methods when combined will greatly 
increase the water-holding capacity of sandy soils. 

The loss of water from sandy soils through evaporation 
may be prevented by forming a good mulch. A mulch on 
these soils lasts much longer than on heavier soils. In fact, 
were it not for the necessity of cultivation for removal of 
weeds, the mulch which forms at the surface of sandy soils 
would often be sufhcient to prevent loss of water, without 
much cultivation. The effectiveness of a natural sand mulch 
may be seen easily by examining a pile of sand. If some of 
the top, dry layer is scraped away, the sand below will be 
found moist. 

The ease with which water drains from sandy soils and 
the naturally large spaces among the particles promote good 
aeration. Therefore, no special measures need be taken to 
keep up the supply of soil air. The difficulty, if any, will be 
in the other direction. Owing to the presence of so much 
oxygen, nitrification is apt to go on too rapidly, so that 
nitrates tend to be formed faster than they are needed, and 
consequently are drained off and lost. These losses may be 
reduced considerably by compacting the soil, as suggested 
for control of water. 

Large applications of manure serve the further purpose of 
supplying food material which is so much lacking in sandy 
soils. But manure contains too great a proportion of nitrogen 
to that of phosphoric acid and potash to be used to advantage 
without correcting or balancing. According to the facts 
presented in a previous chapter, the application of phosphoric 
acid, in the form of both rock phosphate and acid phosphate, 
would seem to be desirable; the rock phosphate to furnish 
a store of phosphoric acid to be made slowly available, and 
acid phosphate for immediate use. Since sandy soils are 



52 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

naturally deficient in potash, it is necessary to make up this 
deficiency. The form of potash used makes little difference. 
The one selected may depend upon the form most easily and 
cheaply obtained. In some instances wood ashes, containing 
about five per cent of potash, might prove to be more eco- 
nomical than the expensive muriate or sulfate of potash. 

If manure is used its composition should be taken into 
account. The proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash in manure, expressed as a complete fertilizer, is about 
10-5-10. This should be balanced by the addition of sufficient 
phosphoric acid and potash to make the proportion some- 
thing hke 3-8-2. The amount of each ingredient to be added 
in order to secure this proportion may be easily calculated 
by the use of simple arithmetic. 

Clay soils. — We have seen that clay soils, because of 
their fine particles, have a great capacity for holding capillary 
water. Due to the same formation they also possess another 
valuable quahty — solubihty. For this reason they are 
regarded as rich soils. Material in a finely divided condition 
presents a larger surface for contact with water than a coarse 
material like sand. Consequently, such material is much 
more soluble. The effect of the size of particles on solubihty 
is shown by comparing the rate at which powdered sugar is 
dissolved with that of sugar in lumps. Sugar in the former 
condition dissolves much more rapidly than in the latter. 
Even glass, which under ordinary conditions is regarded as 
insoluble, if made into very fine powder, will dissolve to some 
extent in water. 

To offset these two valuable attributes of clay, there are 
several disadvantages which must be overcome as far as 
possible. Clay is hard to handle. It is sticky when wet and 
hard when dry. There is a very short period during which 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 53 

clay is neither too wet nor too dry to work to advantage. 
If handled when too wet it puddles or runs together; if too 
dry, it forms clods. In either case the harmful effects may 
extend over a period of several years. It is therefore a serious 
matter to decide just when to plow or work such soils. A 
good deal of experience is necessary in order to recognize 
the right time. Even then it is not always possible to do the 
work at the time when it is most needed. The successful 
handling of clay soils depends upon using the period in which 
they can be safely worked. 

How clay may be made easier to work. — The fact that 
clay becomes sticky when wet and hard when dry is due 
largely to its very fine particles. If these particles can in 
some way be brought together into small groups or granules, 
the clay will lose to some extent, these objectionable features 
and may be much more easily handled. Furthermore, when 
it is in a granular condition, it is easier for roots to penetrate 
it, and it will also retain most of its water-holding power. 

A granular condition of clay may be brought about by the 
addition of lime or finely-ground limestone. In some way 
lime causes the fine particles of clay to mass together into 
small granules. The effect of lime on clay may be illustrated 
by making one ball of wet clay and another of clay mixed 
with a small quantity of lime. When both balls are dry, 
it will be found that the one mixed with lime will break more 
easily than the one made of pure clay. 

Another method of improving clay soils and making them 
easier to handle is by applying coarse organic matter, such 
as straw or coarse manure, or by growing plants having large 
root systems. When either material is thoroughly mixed 
with the soil by plowing and disking, it tends to separate 
the fine particles and produce granulation. 



54 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

To a certain extent also, thorough tillage, practiced through 
several seasons, and good drainage will secure a better con- 
dition of heavy soils, by bringing about granulation. Alter- 
nate freezing and thawing, and wetting and drying, are 
natural means tending to produce the same results. 

It would be good farm practice to employ all four methods, 
especially since lime, organic matter, tillage, and drainage 
have other important uses besides that of improving clay.^ 

It happens that putting clay soils in the best condition 
for handling puts them also in the best condition for plant 
growth. Granulation increases aeration, allows roots of 
plants to push their way more readily through the soil, and 
promotes better drainage from the top layers, thus removing 
the water so that the soil is more easily warmed in the spring. 

Although clay soils are naturally rich in plant-food material, 
the supply is by no means inexhaustible. The material taken 
out of the soil by crops must be replaced from time to time, 
if permanent fertihty is to be maintained. This applies 
especially to organic matter, the removal of which not only 
lowers the nitrogen content, but also affects the structure by 
reducing granulation. Although the supply of phosphoric 
acid is greater than in sandy soils it must be replenished, for 
which purpose the rock-phosphate-manure method is probably 
the most economical. In a few regions such as the limestone 
valleys and uplands of central Kentucky and Tennessee, the 
natural supply of phosphoric acid seems to be adequate. 
Potash is generally abundant, but it may be applied to advan- 
tage as a light dressing at the time of planting or sowing, 
since the growth of young plants is greatly stimulated by 
potash. 

Loam soils. — Loam soils, being a mixture of sand with 
clay and silt, have some of the properties of each. To a 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 5^5 

certain extent, the presence of the one overcomes the defects 
of the other. Thus, the sand in loam makes the soil more 
easily worked and produces better aeration, while the presence 
of clay and silt increases the amount of plant food and the 
capacity for holding capillary water. Loam soils are con- 
sidered very valuable because they require less effort to keep 
them in a condition of good tilth. When a loam is very sandy, 
the same measures should be taken to improve it as are neces- 
sary for improving sandy soils. When it is a clay loam, it 
needs treatment similar to that needed by clay soils. But 
in either case the soil may be put into a condition of good 
tilth much more easily than sand or clay. 

The same attention must be paid to keeping loam soils 
permanently fertile that has been indicated in the discussion 
of sandy and clay soils. These soils, because naturally rich 
and productive with a minimum of labor, are likely to be 
neglected until loss of fertiHty is noticeable. When this 
point is reached, it requires much more trouble and expense 
to restore the fertihty than would have been necessary to 
maintain a constant or increasing fertility. Besides, in the 
latter method there is the additional gain in securing the 
advantage of a uniformly high production of crops. 

Systems of Farming and Soil Management 

It is clear from what has been said that keeping up the 
soil fertiHty is of primary importance in any system of farm- 
ing. The general principles to be apphed are the same, 
whatever the system. The differences he in the kinds of 
natural soil, in climate, in crops, and in animals. For example, 
one farm having sandy soil must be handled in much the 
same way as any other farm having the same kind of soil. 



56 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

But the kind of crops and animals produced may be entirely- 
different. The problem on any farm is to make the best of 
the soil that it has; restoring its fertihty if need be, but 
always keeping it up to a high standard of production. How- 
ever modified by the kind of farming undertaken or by the 
influence of climate and other conditions, this is an essential 
basis for success. Here is where the farmer is able to make 
his contribution to the conservation of our natural resources. 

The real test of good soil management is in the maximum 
production of crops and the maintenance of soil fertility at 
the same time. In general, the soil should be so managed as 
to produce the highest yield possible of the crops best suited 
to that particular soil. Since soils differ greatly in natural 
fertihty, it is too much to expect equal production from all 
soils, but not too much to expect that each approach its 
possibilities. 

Having considered at some length the application of the 
principles of soil management, we are now ready to take up 
the question of what use to make of the soil. By this is 
meant a choice of crops that will secure the best returns from 
the soil. 



CHAPTER VII 
CROP PRODUCTION 

The previous chapter was devoted to a summary of some 
of the most important principles relating to the management 
of soils. These principles should be appKed, as far as possible, 
to the production of all crops, because much of the time and 
labor devoted to production is spent in handUng the soil. 
If the soil is not well handled, the crops are not likely to 
produce enough to pay for the time and labor spent upon 
them. 

Crop production, as a farm enterprise, involves two things: 
First, the selection of crops that are best adapted to a par- 
ticular farm; second, a choice having been made, the handling 
of each crop so as to bring in profitable returns. Although 
it is necessary for successful production to know many facts 
about each crop, there are several important points relating 
to selection and handling that are more or less common to all 
crops. These should be understood before taking up a par- 
ticular crop. 

Selection 

There are at least three things that should receive con- 
sideration in making an intelligent selection of crops: First, 
the crops should be adapted to climatic conditions; second, 
they should be adapted to the soil on which they are to be 
grown; third, they should fit into a plan of management 
known as a cropping system. In order to understand the 

SI 
I 



58 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

relation of each of these factors to crop production, it will be 
necessary to consider each separately and somewhat in detail. 

How climate affects the choice of crops. — In relation to 
crops climate plays an important part. It affects them 
chiefly through rainfall and temperature, for these determine 
the length of the growing season — the period from seed- 
time to harvest. In a temperate climate like that of the 
Corn Belt, this period continues from about the middle of 
May until frost appears in the fall. It follows that the grow- 
ing season is longer in the South than in the North. Since 
rainfall is abundant in the Corn Belt, temperature becomes 
the main factor. But in other parts of the country where the 
temperature is relatively high during the entire year, as in 
New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern Cahfornia, rainfall be- 
comes the chief factor. In these regions the so-called rainy 
seasons determine the growing season of the crop. By timing 
the planting so as to take full advantage of the rainfall, it 
is possible to produce barley, corn, wheat, beans, and many 
other crops. In many places where the annual rainfall is 
low, as in the Western States, crops are made independent of 
rain by the application of water through irrigation. 

Adaptation of crops to climate. — By adaptation is meant 
the use of only such crops as are suitable to climatic con- 
ditions; that is, whose growing periods correspond to the 
season of temperature and moisture favorable to the best 
plant growth. For example, cotton has too long a growing 
season to be used successfully as a northern crop. The 
question of selecting crops suited to climate has been pretty 
well settled by experience, especially in the great farming 
sections of the Middle West. A study of crop production in 
any well-established farming region will usually indicate the 
kinds of agricultural plants best suited to that region. 



CROP PRODUCTION 59 

How soil affects the choice of crops. — Crops must also be 
suited to the soil of a particular region. This is next in im- 
portance to their selection according to climate. A region 
may have the right climate for a certain crop, but the soil 
in many places may not be adapted to this crop, or the re- 
verse may be true. For example, rainfall and temperature 
may be favorable for potato-growing, but if the soil is too 
heavy, the results will not be satisfactory. It follows, then, 
that in choosing crops to be produced on a farm, two things 
must be considered: one, the soil requirements of each crop; 
the other, the nature of the soil on the farm. The soil re- 
quirements of our staple crops will be considered later when 
each crop is discussed. 

The chief characteristics of the four great soil classes 
(sandy, clay, sandy loam, and clay loam) have already been 
sufficiently described. Attention has also been called to the 
work of the U. S. Bureau of Soils and of the State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations, as sources of further infor- 
mation in regard to soil distribution. Soil maps of a number 
of counties in each state have been prepared. When available, 
these maps are valuable for the study of the agricultural 
possibilities of these regions. Such a map may locate for the 
farmer the different kinds of soil on his farm, thus aiding 
him in making a selection of crops and in managing the soil 
to secure larger production. 

The apphcation of these facts to crop selection is: First, 
to learn in general the kind of soil best suited to each crop; 
second, to make sure that the particular soil which is to be 
used meets the needs of the crop desired. It may be when 
these two things are considered that the crop intended will 
not fit into the soil conditions. In such cases more favorable 
crops must be selected. It often happens that a change 



6o PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

may be made which will answer the purposes of the crops 
originally intended, and, at the same time, secure a much 
larger production. For example, alfalfa may be desired, but 
when soil conditions are examined, they may be found to be 
unsuited to this crop. But these conditions may not be so 
unfavorable for the production of red clover. Since red 
clover has nearly the same uses and value as alfalfa, it may 
be substituted with the probabihty of a much greater pro- 
duction. Many disappointments in attempting to grow 
alfalfa and other crops are doubtless due largely to a failure 
to consider the soil needs of the crop in relation to the actual 
soil conditions on the farm. 

How planning a cropping system affects choice of crops. — 
By " cropping system " is meant the operation, through a 
period of several years, of a definite plan of crop production 
for the entire farm. A number of things are involved in 
making such a plan. The most important are the mainte- 
nance of soil fertility; control of injuries and losses due to 
weeds, insects, and plant diseases; the disposal of crops 
(whether as feed for stock raised on the farm or as cash crops) ; 
the competition with crops of better favored regions; and 
distribution of labor. 

How to manage crops so as to maintain soil fertility. — 
Experience has shown that when one crop is grown con- 
tinuously on the same field, there is a decrease in yield, often 
to a point where there is no profit. There are several reasons 
for this. The continual removal of organic matter destroys 
good tilth, especially by reducing granulation and the water- 
holding capacity of the soil; the removal of plant-food ma- 
terials tends to exhaust the supply, particularly of nitrogen 
and phosphorus; certain poisonous substances, called soil 
toxins, accumulate and interfere with plant growth; the 



CROP PRODUCTION 6 1 

difficulty of controlling plant diseases, weeds, and injurious 
insects is increased. A liberal application of organic matter 
may reduce the evils of continuous cropping in a measure, 
but not enough to justify following such a system. An 
experiment with a 12-year continuous crop of corn, where 
clover and rye were used as green manure and where fertil- 
izers were applied, showed but slight profit compared with 
the yield on the same kind of soil, where rotation of crops 
was employed. 

It has been found that where wheat is grown continuously, 
the loss of humus from the soil amounts to 1800 pounds an 
acre, but on the same kind of soil where rotation is practiced, 
there is a gain of from 1500 to 2000 pounds. The various 
advantages of crop rotation may be summed up as follows: 
It increases the amount of humus in the soil, thereby provid- 
ing for greater water-holding capacity and better general 
condition for plant growth; it corrects the injurious effects 
of soil toxins or poisons; it makes possible an easier control 
of plant diseases, weeds and injurious insects. 

The two chief means of keeping up the fertility of soil are 
first, the use of barnyard and stable manure; second, the 
rotation of crops. The latter is of especial importance in 
making a choice of crops and needs to be considered from this 
point of view, somewhat in detail. There are two essential 
features of a good crop rotation. One is to include some 
legume in the rotation; the other, to include some cultivated 
crop so as to control weeds. The following general rule for 
rotation of crops has been suggested : cultivated crops prepare 
conditions favorable for grains; grains prepare for legumes 
like clover, and grasses; and legumes and grasses, in turn, 
prepare the land for cultivated crops. 

The kind of legume to be used depends upon soil and 



62 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

climate. In case legumes do not grow readily, the soil should 
be put into a condition favorable for their growth. Usually 
the addition of lime will be sufficient but in some instances 
better drainage may also be required. The choice of other 
crops in the rotation, aside from consideration of soil and 
climate, depends upon the kind desired. That is, any kind 
of a crop may be used provided it will yield profitably under 
the system of farming in operation. In the example given, 
where wheat, clover, and corn form the rotation, corn is 
the chief crop and the other crops serve to aid in its production. 
The wheat is generally used to secure a stand of clover rather 
than for the profit in itself and is expected to pay the expense 
of putting in the clover. 

After the kind of rotation has been determined, the farm 
should be divided into as many equal parts or fields as there 
are kinds of crops in the rotation. In the example above, 
there would be three or a multiple of three. The shape and 
arrangement of the fields depend upon the lay of the land 
and upon the previous arrangement. . In order to facilitate 
plowing and cultivating, and the division of fields for feeding 
purposes, as in " hogging corn," long, rather narrow fields 
are to be preferred. In many cases an entirely new arrange- 
ment of the fields may be worth while, not only to make 
better provision for a system of crop rotation, but also to save 
fencing and labor. 

How to manage crops so as to control losses due to weeds, 
insects, and plant diseases. — The losses due to these agencies 
are very great. No means has been found that will entirely 
prevent such losses but they may, to a certain extent, be 
controlled by proper crop rotation. The application of this 
method of control and of other means is considered in detail 
in later chapters. 



CROP PRODUCTION 6^, 

How disposal of crops may affect the choice in a cropping 
system. — Farming is a business. Crops are produced for 
profit. Obtaining a profit depends not only upon the quantity 
and quality of the crops raised, but also upon the availa- 
bihty of markets. For example, an abundant yield of onions 
of the finest quality might be produced on a farm so remote 
from markets as to make it impossible to dispose of them 
with profit. Access to market and trade demands must be 
considered in selecting crops. Usually, in long-settled com- 
munities experience has solved this problem, so that it may 
be advisable to follow the practice of the best farmers of the 
community. In new farming regions, the selection of crops 
which are adapted to climatic and to soil conditions and which 
may be disposed of profitably is a matter not always easy to 
decide. Much farm land is sold on a promise of abundant 
crops, with no mention made of marketing conditions. 

Cash crops. — Crop farming, although extensively practiced, 
is not only less profitable than stock farming, but results 
sooner or later in a loss of soil fertihty. Crops are taken 
from the farm and sold. Consequently, there is a continual 
drain of plant-food material in excess of that returned to the 
soil. Humus is also destroyed. This results in the reduction 
of the water-holding capacity of the soil, makes the soil 
harder to keep in good tilth, and tends to prevent much of 
the plant food from becoming available. 

The removal and sale of a crop, however, may be justified 
in general farming, where farm animals furnish fertilizer, and 
a good rotation is practiced to keep up the soil fertility. 
The farm system which includes producing and selling a 
crop for cash has one advantage — ^it helps supply cash for 
running expenses. Potatoes, fruit, melons, tobacco, sugar 
beets, and vegetables are examples of cash crops. 



64 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Crops for feeding animals. — Emphasis has been placed 
upon the use of a cropping system that will secure the up- 
building of the soil. While keeping up the fertihty of the 
soil is of primary importance, it must be managed so as to 
make farming a profitable undertaking. The use of crops 
to feed animals has already been referred to as a means of 
securing soil fertility. This use of crops is, at the same time, 
one that is profitable from a business standpoint. A study 
made of the profits on some farms in certain counties of 
Indiana, Ilhnois, and Iowa shows a much greater labor 
income from live-stock farming than that secured from crop 
farming. Of the 273 farms included in this study (made 
in 1914), 194 were stock farms with an average labor income 
of $755; and 79 were crop farms with an average labor income 
of $28. 

If the purpose is to provide crops for feeding, we have 
another factor to consider in determining the kinds of crops 
to produce. Here the problem is to develop a cropping 
system that will provide crops adapted to climate and soil, 
include legumes in rotations and, at the same time, secure 
the right kind of feed for farm animals. This is by no means 
an easy problem. In the Corn Belt, the chief crop for feeding 
purposes is corn, which is supplemented by clover or some 
other legume. Much of the plant food removed by the crops 
is returned to the soil in the form of manure. For this region, 
experience seems to indicate that the system is a good one 
both from the standpoint of permanent soil fertility and of 
profitable farming. In other sections of the country, like 
western Kansas and Oklahoma, where the rainfall is too 
light for corn, millets and sorghums form the chief feeding 
crops. In the cotton states sudan grass and some kind of 
grain adapted to that region are used. These examples serve 



CROP PRODUCTION 65 

to illustrate how the problem may be solved in different 
sections of the country under varying conditions of soil and 
climate. In each section there are several kinds of crops 
which are adapted to the particular climatic and soil con- 
ditions, and which are valuable also for feeding animals. 

How competing crops of other regions affect the choice of 
crops. — Crops of one region are often grown in competition 
with crops of other regions. All seek the same market. .When 
the cost of production makes it unprofitable to compete with 
crops produced elsewhere at less expense, another choice 
should be made. Usually a change has been forced by experi- 
ence, and the custom of the community may be followed 
safely. For example, farmers of the New England States 
and of New York cannot profitably compete with farmers of 
the Corn Belt in producing corn. Consequently, the New- 
England and New York farmers have found it more profitable 
to produce hay rather than corn. 

How labor may affect the choice of crops. — Labor is 
another factor which must be considered in arranging a 
system of farming. It is important to distribute the work of 
crop production and other farm work throughout the year. 
Especially is it necessary to plan crops in such way that 
work needed on one crop will not interfere with that needed 
on another crop, and also that as little outside help as possible 
will be required. The matter of securing farm labor is a 
serious one, so serious that it must be considered carefully 
in any farm planning. If farm labor must be employed, 
experience seems to show that a farm system which will 
provide work for hired help during the entire year is the 
best plan. Since the labor in crop production is hmited 
largely to the growing season and harvest, such a plan is 
difficult to operate successfully unless farm animals are kept. 



66 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Selection of crops. — Throughout this chapter the im- 
portance of selecting crops for the most profitable production 
has been emphasized. We have seen that such a selection 
involves several things: kind of soil to be used; soil and 
climatic conditions needed by the crop; place in a cropping 
system in order to maintain soil fertility and to control losses 
due to weeds, plant diseases, and insects; the use of the crop, 
whether as a cash crop or for feeding purposes; competition 
with similar crops in other regions; and distribution of 
labor. 

The problem is to make a selection of farm crops to meet 
these requirements as far as possible. But in order to do 
this we need to know the most important things about each 
of a number of our common crops. 

The next chapters will present in detail some of the facts 
we should know about various crops, such as corn, small 
grains, and forage crops that are especially useful in general 
farming; miscellaneous crops, such as cotton, potatoes, and 
tobacco that are usually regarded as cash crops; and vege- 
tables and fruits which are important in some places as cash 
crops, and which should have a place on most farms for home 
use. 

Handling Crops 

Having considered some of the most important points 
that have a general application in the selection of crops, 
we need next to inquire into the various farm operations 
necessary for crop production. This will include selection 
of seed, preparation of the seed bed, planting, cultivation, 
protection, and harvesting. 

Seed selection. — There are at least four questions in 
seed selection that should be satisfactorily answered. Is it 



CROP PRODUCTION 



67 



the right kind or variety? Will it grow? Is it clean? Is it 
free from infection? 

There are usually many kinds and varieties of plants 
included in any farm crop. There are, for example, as many 
as 1000 varieties of wheat. Bread wheats are subdivided, 
according to hardness and color, into soft white, soft red. 



■ 


^^^^^^^SB^^ 




Si 


^^^^^^^B 




^^^^^^^^c 




'f* 






M 


% % t- 


# i» * * •» 


'^^^ 


^^^H 


Ti^ 


%B ♦ • * * ♦ 




^m 




« -^ « • * * " 


Ir- », 





A B 

Results of a germination test of crimson clover seed. 
A. Poor seed. B. Good seed. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

medium red, hard winter, and hard spring. Each of these 
subdivisions is composed of many varieties. For instance, 
the medium red wheats include such varieties as Fultz, 
Lancaster Red, and others. The point to be kept in mind is 
that many kinds and varieties of most farm plants are 
available, thus making it possible to select the one best 
suited to the conditions of production on a particular farm. 



68 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

A Minnesota farmer would probably decide to raise flint 
corn rather than dent corn, because the former matures more 
quickly. But he would have to make a choice among several 
varieties of flint corn. He might choose Smut Nose because 
his neighbors had found that it yields well, or the Golden 
Nugget for some other reason. 

If plants are to be produced, the seed must be capable 
of germination. There is no way of knowing this except by 
testing. For small seeds it is sufficient to choose one hundred 
seeds at random and place them between two pieces of damp 
cloth or paper, keeping them moist and warm untfl they have 
had time to sprout. The number which germinates determines 
the percentage of good seed. The rate of seeding or planting 
may then be based upon this percentage. If the seed tests 
fifty per cent pure, the rate of planting should be doubled. 
A different method generafly used for testing seed corn is 
described in Chapter VIII. 

Seed should be free from dirt and weed seed; from dirt, 
because of its effect on the rate of seeding, and from weed 
seed, because weeds interfere with the growing crop. It is 
not always possible to get perfectly clean seed, especially 
among small-seeded plants, such as grasses, but every pre- 
caution should be taken to reduce the impurities. The 
value of farm seeds free from weeds is discussed in greater 
detail in a chapter on weeds. 

Finally, seed should not be infected with disease-producing 
germs. Seed will be pure in this respect if produced by 
perfectly healthy plants. But this assurance is not always 
possible. In cases of infection by oat smut or potato scab, 
a special treatment of the seed will destroy the infection. 
Details of the cause and control of plant diseases will be 
found in Chapter XV. 



CROP PRODUCTION 69 

Preparation of the seed bed. — In the previous chapter, 
it was stated that the greatest effort in helping plants to 
secure their needs for growth and development is expended 
on tillage. Most of the tillage operations have to do with pre- 
paring the soil for seed. In other words, tillage operations 
prepare for the growth and development of plants. They 
begin with plowing and end with some operation that will 
leave the surface level, with the upper layer of the soil finely 
divided but granular in clay and loam soils, and somewhat 
compact in sandy soils. Such conditions of the soil are 
favorable for the germination of the seed and the develop- 
ment of the young seedlings. 

In this connection, it is well to keep in mind soil and its 
relation to plants as discussed in detail in the previous 
chapters. The preparation of the seed bed means putting 
into practice some of the principles of soil management. 

The thoroughness necessary for preparation of the seed 
bed varies considerably with different crops. Some crops, 
such as potatoes, require a deep open seed bed; others, such 
as wheat, need to have the sub-surface well packed. Modi- 
fications of the general procedure, required in preparing 
the seed bed for particular crops, will be pointed out when 
such crops are discussed. 

Planting. — This refers to getting the plant started. In 
most cases it is done by sowing seeds, as with corn, wheat or 
oats; in others, instead of seeds, cuttings are used, as with 
potatoes or sugar cane; again, plants are started from seeds 
in a specially prepared seed bed and then transplanted, as 
with tomatoes. 

The requirements for planting vary so much 'among farm 
plants that no general procedure can be outlined. Three 
questions arise with reference to the planting of any crop: 



70 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

first, when to plant; second, how deep to plant; third, how 
far apart to plant. 

The answer to the first varies with the length of the growing 
season and climatic conditions. The second depends largely 
upon the size of the seed. It is important to get the seed 
into the soil in the best position to give the plant a good 
start. It may be sufficient to scatter the seeds over the 
surface of the ground, as with some of the grasses; or it 
may require a uniform depth, as with corn. The third de- 
pends upon the size of the mature plant, and must take into 
account the room necessary for its best development. Some- 
times, as with beets, the seeds are planted thickly; after- 
ward the young plants are thinned, leaving only the strongest 
and most vigorous. If the crop is a cultivated one, sufficient 
distance must be allowed between rows for easy cultivation. 
Information concerning these three points and other points 
about crops, especially garden crops, is often condensed into 
a tabular form known as a planting table. 

The questions of depth and distance are often best answered 
by the use of a machine for planting, one especially designed 
for planting the seed of a particular crop or easily adjusted 
to it. Machines are now available for planting all of our 
common crops. They not only do planting better than by 
hand but save much time and labor. 

Cultivation. — Crops, known as cultivated crops, such as 
corn, potatoes, and cotton, must be intertilled from time to 
time in order to destroy weeds and to conserve moisture. 
Cultivation may also help in making plant food available 
and in enabling the soil to retain water from rainfall. 

The principles of water conservation by means of a mulch 
have already been presented. The effect of weeds on growing 
crops is too well known to need further comment here. How- 



CROP PRODUCTION 71 

ever, reference to accurate studies of these effects will be 
found in Chapter XVI. 

Methods of cultivation, or intertillage, are essentially the 
same for all crops. They consist in stirring the soil surface 
by means of some farm implement. The most effective 
implement is a one- or two-row cultivator supplied with a 
number of small shovels. 

The amount of cultivation depends somewhat upon the 
nature of the crop. In general, cultivation should be re- 
peated often enough to keep down the weeds and to preserve 
a good mulch until the ground is well shaded by the growing 
crop. For example, four cultivations seem to be enough for 
corn. The yield is rarely improved by more than four. 

Depth of cultivation has already been referred to; the 
conclusion being made that shallow rather than deep culti- 
vation was to be preferred. There are at least four advantages 
in shallow cultivation: it gives the most effective depth for 
a mulch; it does not destroy the roots of the growing plants; 
it leaves the surface nearly level; it requires less energy to 
pull the cultivator. 

Protection. — ■ The growth of crops is interfered with by 
weeds, plant diseases, and insects. The effect and control 
of weeds will be referred to in a subsequent chapter on weeds. 
One of the problems of successful crop growing has to do 
with the control of plant diseases and insects. Each crop 
has its own difficulties with these destructive agencies. For 
example, wheat rust is a disease which attacks wheat, and 
sometimes timothy and other grasses; the Hessian fly 
confines its injuries chiefly to wheat. Some of the most 
important general facts relating to the control of plant dis- 
eases and insects will be found in Chapters XV, XVII. In the 
discussion of each particular crop, reference will also be made 



72 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

to protection against its most harmful diseases and insect 
enemies. 

Harvesting. — The chief questions arising with reference 
to harvesting a crop are when to harvest, and how to harvest? 

The time to harvest is determined by the use to be made 
of the crop. For example, corn should be harvested when 
fully mature if the grain or fodder is desired, but at an earher 
stage when the kernels are well-glazed, if silage is to be 
made. Some crops, such as clover and alfalfa, are in the 
best condition for harvesting during a very short period. 
Others, such as cotton, and corn if husked, have a rather 
long period. The length of the harvesting periods of different 
farm crops is of considerable importance when planning a 
cropping system which will give a proper distribution of labor. 

The method of harvesting depends, of course, upon the 
kind of crop. But it should be one that gives the highest 
net return. With small production, as on a few acres, the 
profit may be greatest if done by hand, but on a large acreage 
machinery should be used. 

The harvesting of corn furnishes an example of the re- 
lation of cost to method. If husked in the field, much of the 
fodder will be lost for feeding purposes. Since, as a rough 
feed, corn stover may be substituted for hay, whether or 
not to harvest the stover will depend upon the cost as com- 
pared with the value of the hay saved in feeding. If hay is 
high in price, harvesting the stover would probably be a 
good practice; otherwise, it would not. 

Climatic conditions may influence the method of harvesting, 
as is the case with wheat. On the Pacific Coast, where sum- 
mers are dry, wheat is generally harvested by means of a 
header; while in the humid regions of the east, it is cut 
and bound into bundles which are placed upright in shocks. 



CROP PRODUCTION 73 

An important factor influencing both time and method of 
harvesting many crops relates to their preservation. When 
the moisture content in the harvested crop is high, it is Hable 
to be injured by the action of molds and bacteria. Such 
crops as grains lose moisture as they mature. Delay in 
harvesting these crops until they are well matured favors 
their preservation. In 191 7, an enormous loss of corn oc- 
curred, owing to its immaturity when husked. On the other 
hand, hay crops are cut before the plants are mature and, 
therefore, contain much water. Curing hay is essentially a 
drying process in which the water content is reduced below 
the danger point, that is, below the amount needed for the 
active growth of molds and bacteria. 

To avoid this danger also, it is important to protect recently 
cut crops from rain as much as possible, as, for example, by 
putting wheat in shocks and hay in cocks. 

Most of the farm practice in harvesting is the result of 
long experience and is, in general, a safe guide. It is well, 
however, to try to understand the reasons for the procedure 
that is followed in harvesting each crop. 



CHAPTER VIII 
PRODUCTION OF CORN 

Value of corn as a farm crop. — Corn is the great American 
farm crop. It is produced in nearly every state in the Union, 
the total yield for 191 7 being 3,124,000,000 bushels, with an 
estimated value of $3,500,000,000. It furnished the chief 
feed for 62,747,000 hogs, and helped support 43,291,000 beef 
cattle, 23,906,000 dairy cattle, and a large number of sheep 
and horses. The relation of corn to live-stock production 
may be seen by comparing the two in any large corn-producing 
state. For example, in Iowa, in 191 5, the production of 
corn was valued at $154,530,000, with a corresponding 
value of $282,015,000 for live stock. A similar relation 
holds good for the entire country. Furthermore, when the 
corn crop is short, an increase in the price of live stock 
follows. 

In spite of the immense total production of corn for the 
entire country, the average yield per acre is low. In no ten- 
year period has the average exceeded 28 bushels. Yet boys 
and girls who are members of corn clubs have produced 
more than 100 bushels on a single acre, in many states. In 
view of the success of these club members, it seems reasonable 
to expect that some of the principles of corn production 
learned in school will soon be put into practice, and in that 
way lead to a high production of corn in every community 
where corn is a common crop. 

74 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 75 

Kinds of corn. — For the general corn crop, except in the 
most northern parts of states lying on the Canadian border, 
dent corn is almost universally used because of its high yield. 
There are several varieties of dent corn, each having been 
developed to meet the conditions of a particular region. For 
example, the region of dent-corn production has been ex- 
tended northward, by the development of varieties capable 



REPRESENTS 




Distribution map of corn. Note position of the Corn Belt, perhaps the 
most favorable area in the world for corn. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

of maturing during the short growing period of those regions. 
In other places, as in the southern part of the Corn Belt, 
varieties have been developed to take the greatest advantage 
of a rather long growing season, thereby adding to the yield 
per acre. Some well-known varieties of dent corn are the 
Johnson County White, Boone County White, Reid's Yellow 
Dent, Leaming, Wisconsin number 7, and Silver King. 
Only those varieties should be grown which experience 



76 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

has shown are suited to a locality. Where there is any doubt 
as to the variety to use, the State Agricultural Experiment 
Station should be consulted. Corn growers' associations, 
such as the Wisconsin Associations, are doing much, by 
making careful tests, to find varieties adapted to special 
regions. In the Far North, as Northern New England, 
Northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
North Dakota, flint corn is generally used instead of dent 
corn. Flint corn does not yield so well as dent corn, but it 

is able to mature in those 
®-*® northern sections because 

of its short growing season. 
Sweet corn and pop corn 
are used only as special 
crops, not in general farm- 
ing except for home use 
5^0 and for cash crops. There 

f'5^ ^ .. ..^ ^ ..^ are several varieties of 




•05 '06 '07 '08 '09 MO If '12 '13 '14 '15 

^ , , . n ^ ,• „ • ^ -^^^ each, affording considera- 

Graph snowing fluctuations in prices ' ^ o ^ 

of corn and hogs over a series of years, ble range in choicC tO meet 

Note that a variation in the price of corn j^j ^^^^^ ^^^ climatic 

IS followed later by a similar variation ^ 

in price of hogs until 1914. Here this Conditions, 

relation is disturbed, probably due to There are twO Other 

the beginning of the Great War. i • -, r 1 t 

kinds of corn, but they are 
of httle importance compared with the ones already men- 
tioned; pod corn, distinguished by a husk around each grain, 
and soft corn, which, as its name indicates, is free from the 
hard covering of the kernels. 

Climate. — That corn is extensively raised in all the states 
east of the Rocky Mountains, is shown by the map giving 
the distribution of corn production in the United States. In 
the extreme northern parts of the states on the Canadian 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 77 

border the growing season is too short for the highest-yielding 
kinds of corn to mature; while in the western states, including 
those of the Rocky Mountains, the rainfall is too light to 
produce a good crop without irrigation. 

The most favorable section for corn is the broad strip, 
known as the Corn Belt, extending from eastern Nebraska 
through Iowa, IlKnois and Indiana to eastern Ohio. We 
have here the cHmatic influences most favorable for the 
greatest production of corn; a growing period of about five 
months, a high temperature, especially during the second 
half of this period, and an abundance of rainfall. 

Soil. — Any well-drained soil containing considerable or- 
ganic matter will produce corn profitably provided that 
chmatic conditions are favorable, and that proper preparation 
of the soil and cultivation of the crop are secured. Sod- 
land, which has been in grass or clover for one or two years, 
is regarded as the best for corn. 

Place of corn in a cropping system. — For two reasons 
corn should follow a legume in a rotation. First, the legume 
supplies nitrogen for the use of the corn plant and organic 
matter for increasing the water-holding capacity of the soil; 
second, the deep roots of the legume loosen the soil below 
the plow line, affording better drainage and better conditions 
for the growth of the corn roots. 

Preparation of the seed bed. — When the land is plowed 
in the spring, it should be harrowed immediately; and if the 
soil is heavy, it should be disked. Harrowing is important 
to prevent the formation of clods and consequent loss of 
water. If it is well done, a good mulch is formed and, at the 
same time, a good seed bed is prepared. Thorough prepa- 
ration of the seed bed puts the soil in the best possible con- 
dition to grow plants. In some instances, because of the 



78 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

nature of the soil, the labor required will be greater than in 
others, but it is important that harrowing and disking be 
continued until the soil is well prepared. 

Fertilizing. — The best fertilizer for corn is stable manure 
applied early enough to become well rotted before the crop 
is put in. The practice of spreading the manure in the winter 
while the ground is frozen is a good one for the Northern 
States. The manure adds nitrogen to the soil and promotes 
good conditions in the way already described. Manure should 
be balanced by the addition of phosphate of some kind and 
a small amount of potash. Most soils have in store a con- 
siderable amount of potash. In such cases only enough 
need be added to supply the plants during their early grow- 
ing period, the time when they need it most, for the soil 
furnishes the rest. 

There are several ways of applying a fertilizer that are in 
common practice. The method already considered, that of 
spreading a mixture of rock phosphate or acid phosphate and 
manure, will provide most of the phosphoric acid needed. 
A light dressing of acid phosphate and potash spread over 
the ground and worked in with a harrow, will complete the 
ordinary fertilizer requirements for corn. In this way there 
will be plenty of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and po- 
tassium for the young plants, and an abundant supply in 
store to be drawn upon later, as it is needed. Some farmers 
fertilize heavily for a crop, such as wheat, in a rotation with 
corn. The residue from this application remains to be used 
later by the corn. 

Seed selection. — The use of good seed corn is quite 
essential for production, but is a matter much neglected. 
Too often, just before planting time, a selection is hastily 
made from the crib, with a poor stand and inferior crop as a 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 



79 



/T^ 



result. It takes just as much work to get the land ready, 
to plant, and to cultivate a poor crop as it does a good one. 
Therefore, there is a clear gain in using seed corn of a high- 
producing strain, having perfect germination when tested. 
It is not uncommon to find on neighboring farms fields of 
the same kind of soil, which have had equal care in prepa- 
ration of the land and cultivation of the crop, showing a 
marked difference in 
yield in favor of the 
one where careful at- 
tention was given to 
the selection and test- 
ing of the seed. The 
only sure means of 
knowing whether seed 
corn will make a good 
stand is to make a test 
for germination. The 
value of making such 
tests on a large scale 
was emphasized in the 
spring of 1918. Be- 
cause corn of the pre- 



G 



Two methods of holding ears of corn to 
dry for seed. 

A, B, C, D. — steps in making a shng for 
corn ears from binder twine. 

E, F, G. — steps in making a seed corn rack 
from a piece of woven-wire fencing material. 



vious season had failed to mature, there was an almost uni- 
versal shortage of seed corn throughout the Corn Belt. Ex- 
travagant prices were paid for corn that would germinate 
although it was inferior in other particulars. Those farmers 
who planted corn selected from the crib as usual failed 
entirely to get a stand. While other farmers, who planted 
only seed showing a high percentage of germination in the 
test, had no trouble whatever. 
Corn intended for seed should be carefully inspected, ear 



8o 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



by ear. Those ears lacking in good shape, size, or in shape 
of kernels, or that seem to be light in weight should be thrown 
out. A germination test should then be made of the re- 
mainder. Such a test is so famihar that only the main points 
need be given. 

The essential features of the germinator are a device for 
identifying the groups of kernels with the ear from which 
they are taken and some provision for moisture and warmth. 




Diagram of a simple seed tester for corn germination. Described in text. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



The ears should be numbered, or so arranged, that each ear 
may be identified readily after the test has been made. At 
least five kernels should be removed from different parts of 
the ear and placed in a square of the germinator numbered 
to correspond to the number or position of the ear selected. 
When all the ears have been disposed of in this manner, 
the tester should be covered and put in a warm place. After 
five or six days, when inspection shows that germination has 
taken place, each group of kernels should be examined. If a 
group is found where one or more kernels has not germi- 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 8i 

nated, the corresponding ear should be set aside. Only 
those ears which the test has shown to have perfect germi- 
nation should be saved for seed. 

The time and labor spent in preparation to secure a good 
stand of corn is insignificant compared with the gain in 
yield. A crop that must be replanted rarely matures. By 
comparing the number of stalks per acre in a perfect stand 
with the number in a poor stand some idea of the difference 
in value may be obtained. In a good stand, there might be 
10,000 to 12,000 stalks; in a poor stand, 7000 to 9000 — ^a 
difference of about 3000 stalks, or a yield of more than 
thirty bushels. Probably the difference would never be so 
great, since a perfect stand rarely, if ever, occurs, but this 
example emphasizes the importance of good germination. It 
has been estimated that, in Iowa, the stand of corn has been 
increased fifteen to twenty per cent since the practice of 
making germination tests has been generally adopted by the 
farmers of that state. Thus several million bushels are 
added to the annual crop of the state. 

Planting. — Corn is planted in rows usually three feet, 
six or eight inches apart. This space permits easy cultiva- 
tion and gives the plants sufficient room. 

There are two ways of planting the rows: drilling, in 
which single grains are planted at about twelve inch inter- 
vals; the hill method, in which three or four grains are planted 
together in hills spaced to correspond to the distance between 
the rows. Both methods are so famihar that further details 
need not be given. The yield per acre of drilled corn is 
slightly greater than that of corn planted in hills. But this 
gain is sometimes offset by the greater ease with which weeds 
may be kept down in fields planted by the hill method, since 
cultivation may be done in two directions. 



82 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Cultivation. — If the seed bed is properly prepared, there 
will be a good mulch with which to start. The chief object 
of cultivation is to maintain this mulch in its original 

effective condition. The 
first cultivation may be 
made with a harrow, for 
if care be taken, it does 
not injure the corn 
even though it has reached 
a height of three inches. 
Later, a cultivator 
adapted for such work 
should be used. The first 
cultivation may be 
rather deep. After that, 
by using a cultivator with 
small teeth the cultiva- 
tion will be shallow 
enough to avoid injuring 
the roots of the plants. 

The number of culti- 
vations depends upon the 
season. Experiments 
have demonstrated that 
more than four for an 
entire season will not 
usually increase the yield. 
During the early part of 
the season it is desirable to cultivate after each rain as 
soon as the condition of the soil permits. Where a good 
mulch is maintained by frequent cultivation weeds are 
incidentally kept under control. In rainy seasons, the pre- 




Life-history of the chinch bug, 

a. Egg. 

h, c, d, e. Developing stages. 
/. Adult. 

g. Eggs at base of leaf of plant. (Hase- 
man, Missouri Agr. Exp. Station.) 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 



83 



vention of weeds may become the chief object of cultivation. 

Insect injuries. — At various times during the growing 
season corn may be injured by a number of different insects. 
Cut worms, white grubs, corn-root hce, and chinch bugs are 
usually the most destructive. 

Cut worms are most dangerous to the very young plants. 
It has been found that fall plowing and late spring planting 
reduce the injuries caused by these insects. They are likely 
to be more numerous in 
land prepared from old 
grass sod. If such land is 
used for corn, extra pre- 
cautions must be taken 
against cut worms. To a 
certain extent, these insects 
may be controlled by allow- 
ing corn to follow a legume, 
such as clover, in a rotation. 

White grubs, the larvae 
of May beetles, are trouble- 
some at times. The same 
methods of control may 
be used as those applied to the control of cut worms. 

In some sections the corn-root lice are very destructive. 
It has been found that fall plowing is the best means of 
control. 

Chinch bugs are not very injurious except in seasons 
when there is little rain. It is the habit of these insects to 
seek grass or other vegetation in which to spend the winter. 
By burning such material in the fall the danger of injury 
from chinch bugs may be much reduced. 

Other insects, such as wire worms, corn-stalk borers^ 




Development of a spore 01 corn smut. 

A. Smut spore germinating. 

B. After germinating, numerous bod- 
ies known as conidia appear. These 
bodies act as spores v/hich may infect a 
corn plant producing what is commonly 
called corn smut. 



84 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

corn-leaf beetles, and corn-ear worms may at times prove 
destructive. Space will not permit a detailed discussion of 
them. Consult Chapter XVII which is a general account of 
insects as related to agriculture. 

Diseases of corn. — Corn is not subject to many diseases. 
Its most common disease is corn smut, for which no direct 
remedy of practical value has yet been found. Fortunately, 
comparatively few plants in a field are infected with smut. 
The spores of corn smut remain in the ground over winter, 
germinate in the spring and develop chains of new spores. 
These new spores, being blown about by the wind, may 
infect any part of the corn plant with which they come into 
contact. There are two ways suggested for reducing the 
damage to corn by smut: first, to destroy the smut balls 
before they open to scatter spores; second, to rotate corn 
with other crops. Furthermore, seed selected from vigorous 
plants situated in areas free from smut will likely produce 
plants resistant to this disease. 

Another disease now being carefully investigated is corn- 
root rot. It is important not only because of its injury in 
infected fields to corn plants, but because the same organism 
that produces corn-root rot also causes a disease of wheat 
and some other cereals, known as wheat scab. A discussion 
of plant diseases and their control will be found in Chapter XV. 

How to get seed corn ready for the next year. — At- 
tention has been called to the fact that seed corn selected 
from the crib is likely to prove unsatisfactory, especially in 
its low percentage of germination. The selection of seed 
corn is an important matter. It should begin in the field 
before the corn is harvested. The following is one method 
of seed selection: Search the field for the best plants, taking 
into consideration the entire plant, including the ear, and 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 85 

mark a number of them. At husking time the ears from the 
marked plants should be kept separate. In case the corn is 
not to be husked soon after maturity, the best ears of the 
marked plants should be gathered at this time. 

As soon as the corn is brought from the field it should be 
stored in a dry place. In order to secure a free circulation 
of air around each ear, the ears should be arranged in such 
a way as not to touch each other. After the corn is thoroughly 
dry, it may be stored in metal containers where it will be 
protected from moisture and from rats and mice. 

If the plan of selecting seed corn in the field is followed 
year after year, it generally results in establishing a high- 
yielding strain. This plan is known as mass selection. A 
plan giving quicker results will be considered in the chapter 
on Plant Improvement. 

In this connection attention should be called to the de- 
sirability of studying the points of corn so as to be able to 
make a good seed selection. Practice in corn judging is 
important since it develops an appreciation of a good ear 
of corn. Score cards for judging corn may be obtained from 
the State Agricultural College. 

Harvesting. — The methods of harvesting corn are so 
familiar that only a brief reference, by way of summary, 
need be made. There are four general methods. 

First, cutting and shocking: The best time for this op- 
eration is when the grain has hardened, but before frost. 
At this time the crop has its greatest feeding value, taking 
into consideration both fodder and grain. The usual method 
is to allow one shock for each square of sixteen feet. Where 
shocks are exposed to the weather there is a considerable 
loss in the feeding value of the fodder. The corn may be 
hauled to barns and shredded. In this way the loss oc- 



86 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

casioned by weathering may be prevented, and at the same 
time, the material is put in a form to be more readily and 
completely used in feeding. Where many animals are to be 
fed, the gain in feeding material will more than equal the 
additional expense. Besides, the inconvenience of subsequent 
handling, especially in cold weather, is avoided. 

Second, husking in the field: This work may extend over a 
period beginning with the hardened grain and lasting until 
after frost. Later the standing stalks may be utilized for 
feeding cattle or other farm animals. If it is so used, there is 
a much greater waste of fodder than when it is shredded. 
It is estimated that 25 per cent of the protein, and 37 per 
cent of the entire digestible nutrients of the corn plant are 
in the stalks and leaves. This fact should be considered in 
handling corn crops for profitable feeding. 

Third, silage: If corn is to be extensively fed, to cattle 
especially, the method of preserving corn in a silo has many 
advantages. There is less loss of feeding material; animals 
relish it better than corn harvested in any other way; it is 
as easily handled as shredded fodder. It should be harvested! 
before frost, when the grain is well glazed and beginning to 
harden. At this point the total digestible matter is about 
20 per cent greater than when the corn is fully ripe. 

The principle of making silage is simple. The silo itself 
is preferably a tall, air-tight cylinder ten to twenty feet in 
diameter, twenty to forty feet in height. The size depends 
somewhat upon the average number of animals to be fed. 
It is essential that a layer of at least three inches be removed 
each day after feeding is begun, otherwise some of the top 
layer will spoil. The inside walls of the silo should be perfectly 
smooth, in order that the contents may be thoroughly packed 
to exclude air. A special machine, or silage cutter, is neces- 



PRODUCTION OF CORN 87 

sary to cut the corn into short lengths. When cut, the fine 
material is conveyed, usually by means of a blower, to the 
open end of the silo. During the process of filling the silo, 
the material should be packed by tramping, the area next to 
the wall receiving particular attention. By thorough pack- 
ing as much air as possible will be crowded out. If the fodder 
is dry, as sometimes happens when it is cut after frost, enough 
water must be added to enable the mass to become well 
packed. As the silo is being filled, the weight of the silage 
material tends to make the mass more compact. For this 
reason, tall silos are to be preferred to short ones. After the 
filling is completed, certain processes of fermentation take 
place in which most of the oxygen of the enclosed air is used 
up. The products of this fermentation prevent further 
decomposition of the silage, except at the surface where it is 
in contact with air. The principle observed in preserving 
silage is similar to that used in making sauer kraut; that is, 
such conditions are created that the products of partial 
fermentation will prevent further decomposition. 

Fourth, allowing animals to do their own harvesting: 
This method of harvesting applies especially to the use of 
hogs for this purpose. The hogs are turned into a field to 
remain until they have eaten all the corn. This plan, known 
as '/hogging corn," has some advantages: it saves labor; 
it wastes little feed ; and all the animal wastes are distributed 
over the field, thus adding to its fertility. 

Distribution of labor in raising a crop of corn. — In the 
following tabulation, the labor required for the various 
operations pertaining to raising an acre of corn is indicated 
in terms of hours. These figures are averages taken from 
a study of a number of Ohio farms. 



88 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Hours per acre 

Operation Man Horse 

Hauling Manure 11.79 17 65 

Care of Seed 81 .08 

Preparation of Seed Bed: 

Plowing 5-44 13 • 16 

Harrowing 99 2.68 

Disking i-02 2.96 

Planking 93 2.51 

Rolling 76 1. 61 

Planting: 

Drilling i . 5° 182 

Planting (2 horses) 93 i . 86 

Cultivating : 

Harrowing after planting 71 i . 64 

Rolling after planting 70 i . 40 

Cultivating (2 horses) i . 68 3.36 

Hoeing 12 . 23 

Harvesting: 

Cutting by hand 9 . 06 .... 

Cutting by machine 2 . 53 3 . 86 

Cutting silage by machine 3 . 53 .... 

Shocking 3 . 53 

Picking up ear corn after binder i . 61 2 . 23 

Filling silo 23 . 23 19 • 50 

Husking by hand 14 • 41 • • . • 

Hauling corn 3 . 90 6 . 45 

Hauling fodder 2.45 3 . 34 

Husking and shredding 12 . 73 12 .02 

Shredding 4-95 4-33 

HauHng shock corn 715 9 oS 

HauHng fodder for feed 6.01 8.81 



CHAPTER IX 
SMALL GRAINS 

Wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice and buckwheat are known 
as small grains. Their relative agricultural importance may 
be seen from the following table showing the total production 
and value of each in the United States for 1916: 

Kind of Grain Bushels Estimated Farm Value 

Wheat 1,011,505,000 $930,302,000.00 

Oats 1,540,362,000 555,567,000.00 

Barley 237,009,000 122,499,000.00 

Rye 49,190,000 41,295,000.00 

Rice 40,861,000 36,325,000.00 

Buckwheat 15,769,000 12,408,000.00 

The distribution maps show clearly the various regions of 
production for each grain. There are several facts that may 
account for this distribution. The one of especial interest is 
that where an area of large production of a crop occurs, con- 
ditions favorable for growing that crop are indicated. 

In general, the problem of the farmer is first, to decide 
whether he shall use any of the small grains in his farming; 
then, if he wishes to use them, he must next select those best 
suited to the soil and climatic conditions of his farm and to 
his system of farming; finally, a choice having been made, 
he should know how to secure a profitable yield, how to 
harvest and dispose of his crop. 

The general discussion of these grains which follows will 
be limited to the chief points which should receive con- 

89 



90 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

sideration in making such decisions. It should be supple- 
mented by a careful study of local experience as to success 
or failure in producing small grain crops. 

Wheat 

Climate. — The map showing distribution of wheat marks 
three rather distinct areas of high production. Climatic 



Distribution map of wheat. One dot represents 200,000 bushels. 
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

influences alone will not account for this distribution since 
these areas have quite different climates. 

The first area, which includes the states of the Corn Belt, 
has rather mild winters and abundant rainfall. 

The second, which is the Great Wheat Belt, lies between 
the western boundary of the first area and the Rocky 
Mountains. It includes the five great wheat-producing 
states, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, 



SMALL GRAINS gi 

and Minnesota. In this region the rainfall is low and summers 
dry and hot, conditions favorable for production of hard 
wheat — spring wheat north of Nebraska, and winter wheat 
in the remaining states. In the Wheat Belt the average yield 
per acre is low, but the acreage is so great that nearly half 
of the wheat crop of the entire country is produced here. 
Extensive wheat farming is made possible by long stretches 
of level, comparatively cheap land. 

The third area, which includes the Pacific States, is natu- 
rally adapted in many places to wheat growing. Here the 
winters are mild, the springs wet, and the summers dry. 
These conditions are favorable for a large production of the 
soft varieties of wheat. In this region, the high yield per 
acre makes wheat a profitable crop, even on rather high- 
priced land. 

Soil. — Well-drained loam and clay loam are the soils 
best suited to the production of wheat. Sandy soils are 
generally too coarse to retain sufficient moisture, and heavy 
soils are too compact to allow aeration and drainage. Wheat 
is said to be a "delicate feeder"; that is, its plant-food 
material must be readily available. For example, organic 
matter should be well decomposed. 

Relation of wheat to a system of farming. — From the 
foregoing discussion it is seen that wheat may be grown in 
nearly every section of the country. The demand for wheat, 
imposed by the Great War, extended the wheat acreage into 
many places that were formerly devoted to other crops. 
The use of wheat as a farm crop is not so much a question 
of whether it will grow well, as it is whether it will contribute 
to the profits of the farm. 

The cost of raising a bushel of wheat, in 1909, has been 
estimated as fifty-hve cents for the Pacific Coast region, 



92 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

sixty-four cents for the Great Wheat Belt, and eighty-one 
cents for the Corn Belt. Although the cost is greater now, 
these relations are doubtless much the same. Owing to 
greater cost of production the farmers of the Corn Belt cannot 
compete in wheat raising with the farmers of the other two 
regions, unless the difference may be balanced by some other 
gain. 

In the two latter regions wheat is the main crop. In the 
former it is a secondary crop used in rotation with other crops 
and is not expected to contribute directly to farm profits. 

Wheat raising to be profitable in the Great Wheat Belt 
must be conducted on an extensive scale. The acreage must 
be large, though a smaller acreage might yield a profit if 
more attention were given to the preparation of the soil 
for seed. It is a question how long continuous cropping, 
which is generally practiced, may be continued profitably. In 
the wheat-growing sections of California, where continuous 
cropping has been practiced for many years, the yield has 
decreased greatly. Such experience seems to indicate the 
danger of this practice. Referring to California, a wheat 
expert says: ''The general effect of the past and present 
methods has been the development of poor physical condition 
of the land, largely the result of depleted humus, until the 
soil refuses to produce profitable crops of the commonly 
grown varieties of wheat under the old system of farming, 
and besides, the soil has been made foul with weeds." 

The solution of this difficulty is one in which farmers 
engaged in wheat growing should be interested. The methods 
suggested by the California Agricultural Experiment Station 
offer a good solution and apply not only to California, but 
to the entire Pacific, Western, and Northern wheat regions. 
The essentials of these methods are restoration of the 



SMALL GRAINS 93 

humus by green manure crops such as rye and legumes; 
deep plowing followed immediately by sub-packing the soil 
(by using the disk set nearly straight or, in light soils, by 
using a sub-surface packer); and thorough preparation of 
the seed bed. The success of these measures is seen by 
comparing the average yield of 14.5 bushels per acre for the 
entire state of California with 33.7 to 57.3 bushels on sandy 
soils, and 43 to 48 bushels on heavy soils, where this practice 
was followed. 

In the Corn Belt wheat is generally a secondary crop. It 
is used in rotation, in part, to provide a cash crop, and in 
part, to secure a stand of clover. It is a common practice 
to sow wheat in the early fall between rows of corn. This 
method saves labor. It gives good results when a good mulch, 
a fine seed bed and freedom from weeds have been secured 
by thorough cultivation during the growing season. Because 
the maturing corn crop removes plant food from the soil a 
light application of a complete fertilizer will be needed to 
give the young wheat plants a good start. Instead of a light 
application of a complete fertiHzer many wheat growers prefer 
a heavy application of acid phosphate alone. This practice 
is based upon the fact that wheat requires for a high yield a 
liberal supply of phosphorus. The place of rotation will 
depend upon the dropping plan for the farm. It is valuable 
as a nurse crop for clover, affording an easy way to secure a 
good stand. The straw is of considerable value for feeding 
live stock. At the same time it will make some return for 
the use of the land. Its relation to other crops should be 
such that the care of the wheat will not interfere with other 
work during harvest time. 

Seed. — The first consideration is to select the kind and 
variety of wheat best adapted to the region in which it is 



94 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



to be grown. It is advisable to follow the advice of the 
State Agricultural Experiment Station and the experience 
of successful wheat growers of the region. 

Next in importance to variety is the quality of seed. The 
grains should be sound, plump, and free from impurities. 
Small grains are not objectionable. Experiments have shown 




Types of hard wheat. 

I. Fife. 2. Bluestem 3. Turkey 4. 
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Durum 



that the size of the seed has little or no effect upon the yield 
or quality of the next crop. 

If smut infection is suspected the seed should be treated 
as follows: with a one per cent solution of formaldehyde for 
bunt or stinking smut; or with water heated to 130 degrees F. 
for loose smut. The details of the hot-water method are 
as follows: 

1. Soak the grain four or five hours in cold water. 

2. Place about one-half peck of the grain in a bag, or basket, 



SMALL GRAINS 95 

and immerse in water at a temperature of from iio° to 120° F. 
for about a minute. 

3. Plunge wheat into water at 129° F., and barley into 
water at 126° F., and allow to remain ten minutes. Movement 
upward and downward while in the water will facihtate the 
penetration of the heat. 

4. Immerse in cold water to complete the treatment. 

5. Spread the grain out in order that it may dry quickly. 
Preparation of the seed bed. — The 

methods of preparing the seed bed, 
already suggested for California wheat 
growers, have a general application. In 
the Wheat and Corn Belts, if the soil is 
plowed early enough to become well 
settled before planting time, it will be 
sufficiently sub-packed for winter wheat. 
A compact seed bed is of great impor- 
tance, not only because it encourages root Hessian Fly 
development, but it also tends to prevent Magnified 
winter kilhng. 

Time of planting. — Winter wheat should be sown in time 
to allow the plants to get well started before winter. Spring 
wheat should be sown as early as possible in order to secure 
a good root development before warm weather, and to permit 
an early harvest. 

Diseases and insects. — Smut must be controlled by 
treatment of the seed. Rust may be controlled through 
rotation of crops or by use of rust-resisting varieties. 

Another but less known disease is wheat scab. Injuries 
due to this disease seem to be increasing, the loss for 1920 
being estimated at 20,000,000 bushels. The disease is caused 
by the same parasitic fungus that produces corn-root rot. 




96 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Being an intercrop disease it is especially dangerous, particu- 
larly in regions where the practice of sowing wheat in corn is 
followed. Its effects are more Hke blight than scab. All 
parts of the wheat plant may be attacked. The disease may 
be recognized by the " slightly brown and water soaked spots" 
on the wheat head. These areas rapidly spread over the 
entire head and often in damp weather to other heads. 
Kernels of infected heads are generally small in size and very 
light, making it possible to separate them from the rest of 
the grain by rescreening. While no complete methods of 
control have as yet been devised, two practices are suggested : 
one, the use of disease-free seed on uninfected soil; the other, 
avoiding a crop rotation in which wheat follows corn infected 
with corn-root rot. 

The Hessian fly and chinch bug are the only insect enemies 
of wheat that may be controlled to any extent. The Hessian 
fly may be controlled by early plowing and late sowing. 
Since chinch bugs winter in stubble, weeds and grass, the 
remedy lies in removing, by plowing and burning, every 
thing that might afford winter protection for them. Especial 
attention should be given to weeds along fence rows adjacent 
to wheat fields. The Hessian fly prefers warm, moist 
weather. The chinch bug, on the other hand, thrives only 
in hot, dry seasons. 

Harvesting. — In humid climates wheat should be harvested 
before becoming over-ripe. Otherwise the grain would be 
Kkely to shatter. Its milling value would also be reduced 
because over-ripe grain is not uniform. 

After cutting, the bundles or sheaves are placed in loose 
shocks. The shocks are usually capped by spreading over 
the top two bundles at right angles to each other. After 
this operation, the wheat is likely to deteriorate, especially 



SMALL GRAINS 97 

in rainy weather. To avoid deterioration, when there is a 
long wait for a threshing machine, for instance, the wheat is 
sometimes taken from shocks and stacked. The extra labor 
involved is regarded by some farmers as less costly than 
possible losses. 

In arid regions, such as the Pacific Coast, non-shattering 
varieties of wheat are grown and these are allowed to ripen 
fully. Here, a header — a machine which removes the heads 
only — is frequently used for cutting. Sometimes on large 
ranches, cutting and threshing are performed in one oper- 
ation. 

Cost of wheat production. — The following is an estimate 
of the average cost of producing an acre of wheat in Indiana, 
in 1918: 

Preparing the seed bed $3.25 

Fertilizing 2.25 

Seed .- 3.75 

Seeding o . 80 

Harvesting i . 50 

Threshing 2 . 00 

Marketing 0.75 

Use of land 5 . 50 

Total $19 . 80 

The prices of the items in the above tabulation are high 
because of war conditions. The cost of wheat production 
varies from year to year. This illustration merely indicates 
the various items to be considered in estimating the cost of 
producing an acre of wheat. This will become lower as prices 
for labor, fertilizer, seed, twine, etc. are reduced. 

This estimate is, doubtless, nearly correct for the other 
states of the Corn Belt. In the states of the Wheat Belt and 



98 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

of the Pacific Coast region the cost per acre, based upon the 
estimates for previous years, would range from $12 to 
$15. The chief items of difference in expense between 
these regions and those of the Corn Belt are cost of fer- 
tilizers and the use of the land. 

The rate of sowing, as indicated by careful experiments, 
ranges from eight to nine pecks per acre on heavy clay soils, 
and from four to six pecks on light soils. The rate seems to 
depend largely on the tendency of plants to stool or tiller. 
Where plants tiller but little, as in heavy soils, more seed is 
needed. 

Fertilizers. — In the older farming regions, such as the 
Corn Belt, the use of manure and some form of phosphate, 
usually acid phosphate, is generally recommended by State 
Agricultural Experiment Stations. It has been estimated 
that the use of fertilizers for the crop of 19 18, by all the 
wheat growers of Indiana, would have increased the average 
yield per acre from 19.5 bushels to 25 bushels. Such an 
increase would have been worth more than $29,000,000 to 
the farmers of that state. 

Oats 

The map of distribution shows that oats are grown in 
most states of the Union, but that more than half of the 
crop is produced in the states of the Corn Belt, with IlHnois 
and Iowa in the lead. The large production in these states 
may be explained by the common practice of using oats to 
follow corn in a rotation. 

There are more than 400 varieties of oats. They differ 
in many ways: in shape of head, which may range from 
widely spreading to closely compact; in color of grain, which 
may range from white to black and include red, yellow and 



OATS 



99 



gray; in hardiness, spring and winter oats; in time of ma- 
turity, early — which have a short growing period, late — 
which have a long growing season. From an agricultural 
standpoint the value of a variety depends upon its per- 
centage of kernel, its yield, and its weight per bushel. In 
order to secure these desirable properties oats must have the 




Distribution map of oats. One dot represents 200,000 bushels. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

qualities of hardiness, earliness, stiffness of straw, and re- 
sistance to heat, drought and rust. 

Climate and soil. — Oats are naturally adapted to a cool, 
moist cHmate. The ideal cHmate is one affording plenty of 
moisture, which is sufficiently cool to insure a slow ripening 
period. 

Oats will do well on almost any tillable soil, but if the soil 
is too rich, the plants are likely to lodge. Since the chief 
soil requirement for oats is moisture, clay soils are better 
than light soils. 



lOO 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



System of farming. — Some farmers prefer a rotation in 
which corn is followed by oats instead of wheat. The small 
amount of labor required for putting in the crop, and the 
value of the straw and grain are perhaps the chief reasons 
for such preference. Oats, when not too thick upon the 
ground, make a good nurse crop for clover or alfalfa. The 
following rotations have been suggested by a good authority: 
For sections especially adapted to corn — corn, two years — • 




Types of oats ^ four varieties. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

oats, one year — timothy and clover one to three years; 
for Southern States — corn and cowpeas, one year — oats 
followed by cowpeas harvested for hay one year — cotton, 
one or two years. 

Seed. — The weight of grains, rather than the size, should 
be considered in selecting oats for seed. It has been found 
that heavy seed gives better production than Ught seed. 

Seed bed. — Oats grow well in a shallow seed bed. Be- 
cause of this characteristic the ground may be disked instead 



OATS loi 

of plowed unless the soil is very heavy or in poor condition. 
This practice is especially successful in the Corn Belt where 
oats follow corn in a rotation. 

Planting. — Sometimes oats are sown broadcast and then 
harrowed in. But a better and more uniform stand is ob- 
tained by using a grain drill such as is used for wheat. 

The rate of sowing is based upon the same principle as 
that used in wheat sowing — a heavy soil requires more seed 
because the tendency to stool or tiller is less. The amount 
of seed needed per acre ranges from six pecks on warm, light 
soils to three bushels or more on heavy soils. When soils are 
in good condition, eight to ten pecks per acre seem to give 
the best results. 

In the Northern States an early sowing is essential because 
cool, moist conditions are necessary for the best growth of 
oats. In the Southern States winter varieties are commonly 
used and are sown late in the fall, except in Kentucky and 
Tennessee where they are sown early in the fall. Here, spring 
oats are sown from one to two months earUer than in the 
North. 

Diseases and insects. — Loose smut may be easily con- 
trolled by the hot-water method of treating the seed. It is 
always a safe practice to treat the seed with formaldehyde, 
as suggested for wheat infected with bunt. Rust is often a 
serious disease, especially on the Pacific Coast. Quick-matur- 
ing varieties sown early are least susceptible to this disease. 

Insects are not sufficiently injurious to oats to require 
special measures for their control. The green bug, a plant 
louse, occasionally causes injury. If such is the case, the 
crop may be harvested early and used for hay. 

Harvesting. — To secure the best yield of grain and the 
highest quaUty of straw, the oats should be cut in the dough 



I02 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



stage of the grain. At this stage the plants contain a large 
amount of moisture, therefore especial attention must be 
paid to thorough curing in the shock. 

The general procedure for harvesting and threshing oats 
is the same as for wheat. 

Barley 

Although barley may be grown in a wider range of cKmate 
than any other cereal, it is produced extensively in five 

states only: Cali- 
fornia, Minnesota, 
North Dakota, South 
Dakota and Wiscon- 
sin. The reason for 
this restricted pro- 
duction is largely an 
economic one. In the 
Corn Belt barley can- 
not compete with corn, 
but in states farther 
north where the grow- 
ing season is too 
short for large corn 
production, it may do 
so. In California, 
barley is substituted 
for corn and oats be- 
cause the two latter 




^^CF e-"^ 









Results of yield of oats from treated and 
untreated seed. Plants on the left were from 
seed that was treated with cresol. (Formal- 
dehyde would have done as well.) Plants 
on the right were from untreated seed. (U.S. 
Dept. of Agriculture.) 



do not thrive there. 

The varieties of barley differ in several ways: the heads 
may have two, four, or six rows of grain and may be bearded 
or beardless; the hull may be present or absent; they may 



BARLEY 



103 



be hardy enough to stand mild winters; the grain may be 
mealy or hard in quality. 

If the grain is to be marketed, the choice of a variety 
depends upon the quahty and yield; if it is to be used for 
feeding farm animals, upon straw and grain. If barley is 
to be used for hay, beardless varieties have an advantage; 
they are less irritating to the mouths of animals than the 




Distribution map of barley. One dot represents 5000 acres. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



bearded varieties. During the Great War, owing to the 
demand for wheat, barley flour became an important substi- 
tute for wheat flour. For such use the hard varieties are 
superior to mealy varieties because of their greater protein 
content. Much of the grain of barley was formerly used for 
brewing. The mealy varieties are generally preferred for 
this purpose. 
Barley will do well in most parts of the country but it 



I04 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



thrives best in a rich well-drained loam. Much the same 
method is used for raising barley as for wheat. 

When it is used for hay, barley is not threshed but is cut 
and cured Hke other kinds of hay. It is then stored in stacks 
under cover or in bales. In the Western States barley serves 




Distribution map of rye. One dot represents looo acres. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

a double purpose as feed for farm animals, especially for 
horses. It takes the place of both grain and hay. 



Rye 

Rye is the fifth in importance among cereals of the United 
States. It may be grown in most states, but thrives best in 
the North. It is much hardier than wheat, being capable of 
withstanding very severe winters. Although it thrives best 
on good soils, it will produce a fair crop on rather poor soils. 



RYE 



105 



Because of the latter characteristic, it is frequently employed 
as green manure to build up poor soils, especially light sandy 
soils. If used for this purpose, it is usually sown in late fall 
and plowed under in late spring, thus allowing time to plant 
some other crop. 
The selection of seed, the preparation of the seed bed and 




Distribution map of rice. One dot represents 50,000 bushels. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

method of harvesting are essentially the same as for wheat. 

Rye straw is long and flexible and, when straight and 
unbroken, is in demand for packing and other purposes. 
Frequently a method of threshing is used which will remove 
the grain without breaking the straw. In some of the Eastern 
States the straw is of as much value as the grain. It some- 
times commands as high a price as timothy hay. 



io6 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Rice 

In the United States, the region of greatest rice production 
lies in Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern Texas. This 
region produces more than three-fourths of all the rice grown 
in this country. The rest is produced in four other regions: 
the Carohnas and Georgia; the bottom lands of Louisiana; 
the prairie region of Arkansas; and the great river valleys of 
California. 

Rice growing has increased rapidly of late, especially since 
191 5. This increase may be explained in part by the demand 
for rice occasioned by the War; and in part because the 
land which is adapted to rice production is becoming more 
fully utilized. 

During the four months of its growing season rice requires: 
a high temperature, not less than 75 degrees F.; an abundance 
of available water sufficient for irrigation during a period of 
about ninety days ; level land with an impervious substratum 
near the surface to facilitate irrigation; and good drainage, 
to permit the rapid removal of water at harvest time. 

Aside from the use of water, the methods used in rice 
growing, from seeding to harvesting and threshing, are not 
very different from those followed in wheat growing. 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat is not a cereal but the same procedure for 
growing true cereals, such as wheat, answers for buckwheat. 

The production of buckwheat is confined chiefly to the 
Northeastern States, New York and Pennsylvania furnishing 
the greatest production. It will grow in any temperate 
climate. It requires cool summer weather, with considerable 
rain, to produce a good yield of seed. 



BUCKWHEAT 



107 



Outside of a rather limited region, where summer climate 
is favorable for seed production, buckwheat is grown chiefly 
for green manure, hay or forage. Its advantages as a crop 
for green manure are good growth on poor soils; rapid 
growth; its high percentage of nitrogen; its rapid decay 
when turned under. It is inferior as a hay crop because of 




Distribution map of buckwheat. One dot represents 50,000 bushels. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture) 

the difficulty in curing it, but it may be of some use when 
other crops have failed. 

Sometimes small areas are planted to buckwheat for the 
use of bees. The flowering season is rather long and comes at 
a time when other honey-making flowers are scarce. 

The time for sowing buckwheat may be adjusted to the 
demands of other farm work, because it requires so short a 
period to reach maturity — ■ only sixty to seventy days. The 
procedure for growing and harvesting the crop is, in general, 
the same as for other cereals. 



CHAPTER X 
FORAGE CROPS 

What forage crops are. — It may be that " forage " origi- 
nally referred to those plants upon which animals fed in 
the fields or pastures, but now it generally includes all plants 
that furnish hay or rough feed as well as those used for graz- 
ing or pasture. Small grains and corn are sometimes used for 
forage, as, for example, straw of threshed grains; oats, barley 
and rye when used as pasture or fed entire; and corn when 
used as fodder, when shredded, or when used as silage. In 
the discussion to follow, forage crops will be considered in 
four groups; legumes, grasses, millets, and sorghums. 

Forage crops are necessary in any system of farming which 
includes raising and feeding of animals. Fortunately there 
is a great variety of such plants that are available for this 
purpose. Some are adapted to one kind of climate, some to 
another, so that the production of forage crops is possible 
in most parts of the country. It remains for the farmer to 
make his choice of the ones best adapted to his particular 
region and system of farming. 

Legumes 

What legumes are. — It has already been necessary to 
refer to these plants several times in connection with soil 
fertihty. The word legume is a botanical term which refers 
to plants that bear pods, such as peas and beans. Another 

io8 



LEGUMES 



109 




characteristic, common to all legumes, is the ability to form 
a sort of partnership with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, in which 
association nodules are formed on the roots. 

This close association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria may 
account for another very valuable characteristic of legumes — 
their power to make and to store up 
protein, an important substance in the 
feed of farm animals. 

Value of legumes. — Legumes are al- 
most necessary farm crops because of 
the characteristics mentioned. They 
enrich the soil by making possible the 
action of bacteria to convert the free 
nitrogen of the soil air into a form availa- 
ble for plants to use; and they furnish 
protein to balance the more starchy feed 
for farm animals, by manufacturing and 
storing large amounts of protein. 

The value of these crops has long been 
known, but not until lately have they 
come to be regarded as essential to all 
except the most specialized kinds of farm- 
ing. There is no crop that furnishes so 
much valuable feed for live stock and 
at the same time enriches the soil to such an extent. 

Kinds of legumes. — The use of legumes is favored by the 
fact that there are many kinds adapted to different climatic 
conditions. There is no difficulty in finding a legume that 
will be reasonably productive in any section of the country, 
except perhaps in very cold regions. 

In choosing a particular kind of legume its chief charac- 
teristics and requirements must be considered; such as 



Effects of soil treat- 
ment on yield of al- 
falfa. 

A. No treatment. 

B. 4500 lbs. of lime- 
stone per acre, 

C 4500 lbs. of lime- 
stone and 27,000 lbs. 
of manure per acre. 

D. Same as (C) 
but with addition of 
300 lbs. of bone meal. 
Acid phosphate might 
have been substituted 
for bone meal with 
same results. 



no PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

adaptation to climate, special soil requirements, methods of 
seeding, handling, etc. 

The following list includes the most important legumes; 
clovers (including red, mammoth, white, alsike, crimson, and 
sweet), alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, vetch, Japan clover, 
peanuts, velvet beans. 

Selection of a legume. — As has already been suggested the 
choice of a particular legume for a farm depends upon several 
factors. In general, the most important are climate, soil, 
and the system of farming to be used. 

Climate. — Usually it will be a safe practice to use the 
legumes that are commonly grown in a region. For example, 
in the Corn Belt red clover is generally grown, and this 
legume would be a wise selection for that region. 

Soil. — The soil should be well drained and furnished with 
plenty of lime. These are the two chief requirements of all 
legumes. Of course a rich, deep soil will produce a much 
greater yield than a shallow, poor soil. 

Some legumes are less sensitive to soil conditions than 
others. For example, mammoth clover will often make a 
good yield on soils too poor for red clover. Alsike clover 
will grow on rather poorly drained soils. Sv^eet clover will 
generally grow on soils where other legumes fail. Cowpeas 
are adapted to a wide range of soils. 

System of farming. — In the chapter on Crop Production, 
emphasis was placed upon the need of using legumes as a 
means of keeping up soil fertility. They are also needed 
for feed. The kind of legume raised is not so important 
as that a rotation should be established by which each 
cultivated area of the farm may become periodically enriched 
by legumes. The system of farming should cover both these 
purposes. 



LEGUMES 



III 



In the Corn Belt red clover generally fits well into a system 
of farming where animals are to be fed. In the South cow- 
peas, soy beans and velvet beans are commonly grown. 
Here especially the system of farming must include soil 
improvement. Cowpeas and velvet beans are well adapted 
for enriching the soil and also for feeding farm animals. 
If silage is to be made, soy beans or cowpeas fit well into 
the system. Silage made of either of these legumes and corn 
usually makes a better ration than a silage made of corn 
alone. 

Raising the crop. — Each legume must be raised by the 
methods best suited to its particular needs. Space will not 
permit a detailed consideration of all these methods, but 
there are some general principles that apply to all legumes. 
These principles may be briefly summed up as follows: the 
soil should be as well drained as possible, and any acidity 
corrected by use of Ume; the seed bed should be well pre- 
pared; the seed should have a high percentage of germina- 
tion and be free from weed seeds; the harvesting should be 
timed to give the greatest yield of digestible nutrients; the 
method of harvesting should provide for thorough curing of 
the hay. 

Red clover. — This legume is grown very generally through- 
out the states of the Corn Belt, and to some extent in most 
of the other states. The importance of clover is indicated 
by the statement made by the Illinois State Agricultural 
Experiment Station to farmers of Illinois "that the growing 
of clover on somewhere near one-fourth the tillable land is 
absolutely essential in the permanent maintenance of the 
productivity of the state." 

The value of red clover lies in its ability to enrich the soil 
by fixation of nitrogen, its large root system penetrating the 



112 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

soil deeply and promoting good aeration, and its high feeding 
value for all kinds of farm animals. Besides, being a biennial 
plant, it is well adapted for use in short rotations of 
crops. 

For successful production of red clover there are three 
requirements that should be observed: favorable soil con- 
ditions, getting a good stand, and fall and winter treatment. 

Favorable soil conditions include good drainage, enough 
lime to neutralize soil acids, phosphorus, and organic matter. 
Lack of any one of these will likely lead to failure. 

Frequent causes of failure in growing red clover are poorly 
prepared seed bed, rank-growing nurse crop, and too heavily 
seeded nurse crop. Clover requires a good seed bed having 
a fine surface and firm sub-surface. The use of a corrugated 
roller immediately before or just after seeding is a good prac- 
tice for it not only improves the seed bed for the clover but 
also for the small -grain nurse crop. Early maturing nurse 
crops, not too heavily seeded, seem to give the young clover 
plants the best start. Wheat because of its early harvest is 
regarded by many farmers as the most desirable nurse crop 
for clover. 

By fall and winter treatment is meant protecting the clover 
that has become established from winter injury. Too late 
or too close pasturing in the fall will leave the ground bare 
and the young clover plants without winter protection. 
Sometimes there is a heavy growth in the fall. In such cases 
careful pasturing or clipping should be done to prevent over- 
development of the clover. 

Clover for hay should be cut when about one-third of the 
heads have become brown so as to give the maximum yield 
of total dry matter and digestible nutrients. 

Other clovers. — Mammoth clover is too coarse for the best 



LEGUMES 113 

quality of hay. It is superior to red clover for renewing or- 
ganic matter in depleted soils and less exacting in its require- 
ments for good growth. 

Sweet clover is not relished by farm animals, at least not 
until they are forced to acquire a taste for it. It may be used 
for hay or for grazing in emergencies due to shortage of other 
forage crops. Its chief value is its hardiness and ability to 
grow under unfavorable conditions. Its most important 
general use is to build soils, being especially useful on eroded 
surfaces or on so-called worn-out soils. 

Japan clover (Lespedeza) is an annual clover that readily 
seeds itself. It is grown in most of the Southern States in 
pastures for grazing purposes. On account of its hght yield 
it is not often used as a hay crop. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is a superior forage plant because of 
its high feeding value and large yield. As compared with 
red clover it contains 9 per cent more digestible dry matter 
and 4.6 per cent more digestible protein, and yields about 
twice as much green forage. As a soil builder it is also superior. 
It has a heavier and deeper root system than clover, making it 
possible for it to reach and use plant food at a '.great 
depth. 

It will grow on a wide range of soils if conditions are favor- 
able. These conditions are good drainage, sufficient lime, 
and presence of organic matter. All three of these conditions 
must be met for success in growing alfalfa. 

Two methods are employed in getting a stand of alfalfa. 
Both require a well prepared seed bed — deeply plowed, well 
firmed and finely surfaced — and for most soils, inocula- 
tion. One method ''for getting a stand is spring seeding with 
a light nurse crop.. The difficulty with this method lies in 
the control of weeds. They are not always kept down by the 



J 14 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

nurse crop. The other method is late summer seeding. The 
advantage of this method is that it is often possible to use 
ground that has produced a crop during that season. When 
such a field is used it is desirable to make a liberal application 
of well-rotted manure and work it thoroughly into the seed 
bed. Some farmers follow the practice of summer fallowing, 
keeping down the weeds during the summer by frequent 
tillage. 

Alfalfa is a perennial. It may be grown without renewal 
for many years. Five or six years usually cover the most 
productive period. Some farmers use alfalfa in a long rota- 
tation; others prefer to set aside a separate field so that the 
regular rotation of the farm will not be interfered with. It 
has been suggested that in growing alfalfa for the first time 
a farmer should begin with a small area — one or two acres 
— and gradually, as he gains experience, put additional land 
into alfalfa until his needs are satisfied. 

Alfalfa should be cut when new shoots are appearing at 
the crown of the plant. Hay made at this time will have a 
much higher feeding value than if made from more mature 
plants. 

Vetch. — Common vetch is grown for hay on the Pacific 
coast and in the Southern States. Hairy or Russian vetch 
is very hardy and can be grown in all parts of the country. 
It is frequently used after a failure to secure a stand of red 
clover. Some farmers sow it in their corn fields at the last 
cultivation for fall and early spring grazing, and for green 
manuring. 

Cowpea, soy bean, velvet bean. — These plants are exten- 
sively grown in the Southern States chiefly as hay crops. Cow- 
peas and soy beans are generally grown in the Northern States 
for both forage and seed. The hay from all three plants has 



GRASSES 115 

much the same value as alfalfa .hay. The seed is very rich in 
protein and is valuable for balancing starchy rations. 



Grasses 

From an agricultural viewpoint, grasses may be considered 
as belonging to two groups, pasture grasses and meadow 
grasses. Either of these grasses may be used for pasture or 
may be cut and used for hay. 

Pasture grasses. — This group includes our various native 
grasses. The best known is Kentucky blue grass. On the 
Western Plains there is a mixture of several kinds of native 
wild grasses, called prairie grass. Near the sea shore level 
areas are covered with several kinds of wild grasses col- 
lectively known as salt or marsh grass. On the Pacific slope 
various grasses, such as wild oats, furnish good pasture during 
the latter part of the rainy season and for some time after- 
ward. Among the mountains occur level stretches, known 
as mountain meadows, that are covered with many kinds of 
grasses useful for pasturage. In all these sections native 
grasses provide valuable pasturage on land not under culti- 
vation. 

Pastures are of two kinds, permanent and temporary. 
Those parts of a farm that cannot be cultivated with profit, 
such as hill land, may become permanent pastures. In this 
way unused or waste land becomes productive. In the case 
of slopes and hillsides, the sod also serves as a protection 
against soil loss through erosion. 

Temporary pastures are those grown in rotation with 
other crops. They are often a mixture of grasses and legumes 
and remain from one to three years, according to the system 
of rotation employed. 



ii6 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 






Meadow grasses. — Grasses are especially valuable for 
hay, because they dry easily when cut and are therefore 
easily preserved for stock feed. Although they do not have 
as great food value as legumes, they are much rehshed by 
stock. 

Among the grasses used for hay, timothy has the first 
place, being adapted to the climatic conditions throughout 

the Northeastern and 
Rocky Mountain 
States. In the Cotton 
Belt and in the Gulf 
States Johnson grass 
and Bermuda grass are 
grown for pasture and 
sometimes for hay. 
Native grasses furnish 
the most important hay 
crops in the Plains 
Region. In the states 
of the Pacific Coast, 
grain hay, such as 
barley, is chiefly used, although orchard grass, timothy, 
and other grasses are used to some extent. 

The yield of hay from meadows tends to grow less from 
year to year, unless they are fertilized — a somewhat diffi- 
cult practice seldom followed. On account of decreasing 
yields from old meadows, it is desirable to keep meadows 
in a system of rotation, leaving each field in grass only two 
or three years. For example, it is a good practice to sow a 
mixture of clover and timothy seed in the field the same 
year. During the first season clover will predominate, but 
will be replaced largely by timothy the second season, and 



Diagram showing the relation of digesti- 
bility and yield of timothy hay to time of 
cutting. 

A. Relative yields of dry matter at dif- 
ferent stages. 

B. Relative digestibility at different stages. 
(Missouri Agr. Exp. Station.) 



MILLETS 



117 



by the third season the field will be set to timothy. After 
that time the land is ready for a crop of another kind. 

Grasses should be given the same attention as small-seeded 
legumes in regard to 
preparation of the seed 
bed, quality of seed, and 
sowing. 

Millets 

Millets are annual 
plants grown as the 
chief hay crop in the 
Central Western States. 
They are both heat and 
drought resistant and 
therefore are well 
adapted to this region. 
Owing to their short 
growing period, they are 
sometimes used in other 
sections of the country to 
furnish hay when the 
regular hay crops fail. 

Among the most important kinds of millets are common 
or foxtail millet, German, and Hungarian millet. Broom 
corn and pearl millets are grown in some places. 

Millets yield well when grown under favorable conditions. 
The procedure of seeding and handling the crop is similar 
to that followed for other grasses. The time of cutting, 
however, is especially important. Millet should be cut at 
that stage of growth when the blossoms appear. Late cutting 




Varieties of Kaj&r. 

A. White. B. Guinea. 
C. Blackhull. D. Red. (U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture.) 



ii8 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



should be avoided because the woody stems and hard seeds 
injure the quaUty of the hay. 



Sorghums 

Sorghums are grown chiefly in the Southern and Central 
Western States. They are used for grain, forage, and hay. 
Kafir corn, milo maize, feterita, and durra are the kinds 



j^^//^^vi 


1 


^yi 


w 


^^w^ ^ i} ^^ 


^F^/*' 




m 



Milo maize — an improved variety. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

most commonly grown. Sudan grass, related to the sorghums, 
has lately been introduced in the South and promises to be 
a valuable hay plant for this region. It is sometimes grown 
in the North, as in Wisconsin. 

When grown for a hay crop, sorghums must be sown thickly 
to prevent too coarse a growth. The cutting should be done 
when the seeds of the plants are in the milk stage, so as to 
reduce the proportion of woody material in the hay. The 
method of curing and handling is similar to that employed 
in other hay crops. 



CHAPTER XI 
MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 

In the preceding chapters all of the staple farm crops 
except cotton have been discussed. But there are many other 
farm crops of agricultural value — too many to enumerate. 
They are included in the following great classes : 

1. Fiber crops — cotton, flax, and hemp. 

2. Tuber and root crops — potatoes, beets, and turnips. 

3. Sugar crops — sugar beets and sugar cane. 

4. Stimulant crops — tobacco, tea, and coffee. 

5. Garden crops — including the common garden vege- 

tables. 

6. Orchard crops — including fruits and nuts. 

A few examples from these classes will be discussed some- 
what in detail. These examples are selected because of 
their agricultural importance in certain sections of the 
country, because of their value as a cash crop in general 
farming, or because of their value for home use. 

Cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and factory crops (sugar beets, 
tomatoes, sweet corn and peas) will be discussed in this 
chapter. Garden and orchard crops are so valuable for 
home use on the farm that a separate chapter will be devoted 
to each. 

Cotton 

Cotton is adapted to the climate of the Southern States. 
Nearly half of the cotton crop of the world is produced here. 

119 



I20 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

The region, known as the Cotton Belt, may be seen on the 
distribution map of cotton production. It is the leading 
crop of these states, and has become of national importance, 
because of the value of the production itself (it amounted, 
in 191 5, to over $600,000,000) and because of the great 
cotton-manufacturing industry which it supports. Cotton- 
seed products also add much to the value of the cotton crop, 
amounting, in 191 5, to about $180,000,000. Cotton-seed 
oil has about the same composition as olive oil and has similar 
uses; cotton-seed cake (the residue after the oil is expressed), 
because of its high protein content, is an excellent feed for 
farm animals; even the hulls of the cotton seed serve a 
variety of useful purposes. 

The history of cotton growing in the South is similar to 
that of crop farming in the North. Cotton growing began in 
the Atlantic Coast States. Later, as land became less pro- 
ductive, it extended westward, finally reaching Texas and 
Oklahoma. Until recently, continuous cropping has been 
generally employed with a consequent loss of soil fertihty, 
except where fertilizers are liberally used. The tendency 
toward low yield due to this practice, and the effect of the 
cotton boll-weevil and other insects, have made it necessary 
to modify the older methods. The new practice now being 
introduced makes cotton one of several crops in a rotation. 
It includes also restoration of the soil fertihty by the use of 
legumes in the rotation and by the feeding of farm animals. 
The mild climate and abundant rainfall are favorable for the 
production of a large variety of forage crops. The use of 
these, together with cotton-seed products or some other 
protein feeding material, makes stock raising profitable. The 
kind of farming that includes a rotation of cotton with good 
feeding crops not only introduces a new source of profit, but, 



COTTON 121 

at the same time, increases the yield of cotton per acre. 
The introduction of these new methods is a slow process, 
partly because of lack of capital, but chiefly because it is 
difficult to get farmers to change from a method with which 
they are famihar to an untried one. 

The lack of capital is now being overcome by the operation 
of the Rural Loan Act which makes it possible for a farmer 
to obtain loans for equipment and live stock. To overcome 
the farmer's resistance to a change of methods, an educational 
program is being introduced. It will deal with adult farmers 




EACH DOT 

REPRESENTS- 

2fi00 BA1.E8 



Distribution map of cotton. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



through county agents and farm demonstrations, and with 
boys through club work and the public schools. 

Cotton growing has lately been introduced into the irri- 
gated regions of Arizona and Southern Cahfornia. These 
regions are particularly well adapted for the production of a 
kind of cotton with a long staple or fiber. On account of 
its strength, this kind of cotton is in demand for the manu- 
facture of rubber tires for automobiles. 

Preparation of the seed bed and planting. — The usual 
time for plowing is February or March. Where cotton is 
grown successively on the same land fall plowing has several 
advantages; among them are a better control of the boll- 



122 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

weevil and boll- worm, and the possible utilization of the 
cotton stalks as green manure. Fall plowing followed by 
the sowing of winter grain and crimson clover is also 
practiced. The grain and clover furnish forage for stock and, 
when turned under in the spring, improve the soil. Preparing 
the seed bed by means of ridging is the older and more 
common method. Two furrows are thrown together forming 
a ridge for each row. The ridge is made ready for planting 
by breaking with a double moldboard plow. A special 
machine may often do the planting and breaking at the same 
time. Since this method warms and drains the soil it is 
advantageous for wet and poorly drained soil. 

The other method is similar to that used in preparing 
the seed bed for corn. This second method puts the seed 
bed in better condition and saves labor by making use of 
better farm implements. 

Where continuous cropping is practiced, commercial ferti- 
lizers must be used either at the time of seeding or before the 
final preparation of the seed bed. Acid phosphate at the 
rate of two hundred pounds to the acre is commonly used. 

Planting is done in drills, in rows spaced according to the 
richness of the soil — from two and one-half to five feet 
apart. The seed is drilled thickly, but the plants are after- 
wards thinned to a distance of one or two feet apart. 

Cultivation. — The crop is cultivated in much the same way 
as any other cultivated field crop. The chief object is to 
keep down weeds. The control of weeds is easier with the 
level system of planting than with the ridge method, because 
the harrow or weeder can be used when the plants are very 
small. 

Diseases and insects. — Cotton-wilt and cotton-root rot 
are the most common diseases. They are especially de- 




A cotton boll showing injury by- 
larvae of the boll-weevil. (U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture.) 



COTTON 123 

struct! ve when continuous cropping is followed. The ro- 
tation of crops is the most effective means of control. 

The cotton boll-weevil 
is by far the most serious 
insect pest. Its range has 
gradually spread until it 
now includes most of the 
Cotton Belt. This insect 
may produce as many as 
five generations in one 
season. The first genera- 
tion attacks the bolls when 
just forming. 

The adult boll-weevil 
spends the winter as an 

adult, hiding in parts of the cotton plant or in other plant 
refuse left in the field. Fall plowing, the cleaning of fence 
rows and adjacent fields, and early plant- 
ing of quick-maturing varieties of cotton 
seem to be the best means now employed 
in controlling this insect. 

The boll- worm, the same insect known 
in other places as the corn-ear worm, does 
considerable damage to the cotton crop. 
It is controlled in the same way as the boll- 
weevil. 

Harvesting. — Picking is done by hand. 
Beginning late in August, picking may 
extend over a period of three months. After 
the cotton is picked, it is taken to a gin 
which removes the seed from the hnt. The Hnt is pressed into 
large bales which are made secure by straps of baling iron. 




Boll-weevil — an 
adult insect. (U.S. 
Dept. of Agricul- 
ture.) 



124 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Potatoes 

Value of the crop. — Potatoes are now regarded as almost 
a necessary part of our daily bill of fare. Besides, consider- 
able quantities are used for stock feeding, starch making, 
and other purposes. 

The production of potatoes for the entire country, in 
191 7, was estimated at 442,536,000 bushels, valued at 
$543,865,000. For the five-year period of 1908-1912, the 
average production per acre was only 96.2 bushels. A 
much greater acre production is possible. In Utah, in 1916, 
925 bushels were said to be produced by a boy, on one acre. 
In certain sections of Colorado 800 bushels per acre have 
been produced. Notwithstanding the possible large pro- 
duction of the potato crop, the actual needs of the country 
have at times required the importation of large quantities 
from foreign countries. A good illustration of the effect of 
low production may be cited. There was a shortage in 1916- 
191 7, the production amounting to only 285,000,000 bushels. 
On account of the War no potatoes could be imported and 
the retail price reached as much as eight cents per pound — 
a price beyond the means of many people. A similar situ- 
ation occurred in the spring of 1920, the retail price rising 
to ten cents per pound. 

From this review of the agricultural importance of potato 
production, it is apparent that there should be at least suf- 
ficient production to supply the needs of the entire country^ 
making importation from other countries unnecessary. 

Potato growing has proved a profitable field for special 
farming in regions well adapted by soil and cHmate for this 
crop. Besides, in many places it is a source of profit as a 
cash crop in general farming and is also valuable for home 



POTATOES 125 

use. The production of potatoes in its relation to domestic 
consumption is low, and the possibihty of large production 
with good financial returns is shown by the experience of 
many growers. Therefore, it is suggested that the growing 
of potatoes, as a special crop as well as an incidental crop, 
could be greatly increased with profit not only to the farmers 
concerned, but to the consumers as well. 

There are two indirect benefits of potato growing that add 
to its value as a farm enterprise — the effect of a potato 
crop on the soil and on the control of weeds. 

It has long been observed that various farm crops when 
grown on land previously used for potatoes show a greater 
yield than the average for such land. It is also necessary 
for the best success in growing potatoes to rotate them with 
other crops, preferably in a long rotation. Some crop should 
therefore follow potatoes each year. This crop will ordinarily 
be more productive than under the usual farm conditions of 
production. 

In regard to the control of weeds, since potatoes must be 
well cultivated, the clearing of weeds from the land is assured. 

In this connection one rather serious disadvantage of 
potato growing should be mentioned — it is not adapted to 
unusual seasonal conditions, such as too much or too little 
moisture. Under either of these conditions the crop is Hkely 
to be a failure. 

Another point should be taken into consideration; during 
seasons that are unusually favorable over a wide territory, 
the production may be so great as to lower prices beyond the 
margin of profit. Doubtless this difficulty will in time be 
offset by the use of potatoes for other purposes than human 
food; for example, for starch making, production of alcohol 
for fuel, feed for hogs, etc. If potato production should 



126 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

become great enough to supply material for these uses each 
year, in addition to providing the amount needed for table 
use, the problem of disposing of the surplus of unusually 
productive years would be solved. 

Climate. — Potatoes require for their best growth a cool, 
even temperature. In the South, they may be grown only 
in early spring or late fall in order to escape tipburn, sun- 
scald and other difficulties. In the irrigated regions, as in 
California, Utah, and Colorado, conditions are favorable, 
except that the cool nights are a sUght disadvantage. 

Outside of these states the climate best suited for potatoes 
is found in Maine, in parts of other New England States, 
also in New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
North Dakota. As a' special crop or as a cash crop the potato 
is not likely to prove satisfactory outside of these regions. 
In other sections early spring planting for summer use and 
summer market and fall planting for winter use should produce 
enough potatoes to supply the home needs and, in many 
instances, a surplus for sale. 

Further requirements for potato production. — Aside from 
a favorable cHmate there are four requirements for the best 
success in growing potatoes; selection of suitable varieties, 
liberal fertilizing, thorough cultivation, and the control of 
insects and diseases. 

In selecting potatoes for seed several things must be con- 
sidered. Those varieties should be chosen which local experi- 
ence has shown to be productive and at the same time to 
possess marketable qualities. 

In the same field it is possible for one variety to produce 
abundantly with good market quality and another to produce 
heavy tops, with tubers of inferior yield and quality. Among 
the standard varieties are the Early Ohio, Early Rose, Bur- 



POTATOES 



127 



bank, Irish Cobbler, Carmen No. 3, Rural New Yorker, Early 
Triumph, and Sir Walter Raleigh. Experience only can deter- 
mine the most suitable variety for a given locahty. The four- 
hill-unit method of improving potatoes described in Chapter 
XIV is well worth trying. ' In a few years a high-yielding strain 
adapted to local conditions may be developed in this way. 

Individual tubers, to be used for seed, should have a smooth 
skin, shallow eyes, good shape, and should be free from evi- 
dence of disease, such as scab. Blocky, rather than long, 
pieces should be cut. Each piece should contain one or two 
eyes. The size of the piece is more important than the number 




Potato tubers — the kind for initial selection in the four-hill-unit method 
of improving potatoes by selection. 



of eyes. A one-ounce piece will furnish plenty of plant food 
to give the new plant a good start. 

A sandy loam underlaid with clay is regarded as the best 
soil for potatoes. It should be moderately rich, especially 
in organic matter, for the double purpose of providing good 
soil conditions and plant-food material. The soil should be 
kept in good condition by rotating the potatoes with legumes 
and the frequent use of green manure. Other fertihzers are 
also needed, especially potash, and some phosphoric acid. 
The potash and phosphoric acid requirements may be met 
by using a heavy application of manure reinforced by acid 
phosphate. 



128 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

The best possible preparation of the seed bed should be 
made for all crops, but deep plowing is especially important 
in potato growing. The plowing should be followed by 
thorough cultivation, deep at first, but shallow in all the 
later cultivations, because the potato roots grow near the 
surface of the soil. Ridging, or hilHng, is not necessary, 
except just enough to protect the tubers from sunburn. 

The control of injurious insects, such as the Colorado 
potato beetle, and of diseases, such as late blight, requires 
considerable attention. With all the conditions of climate, 
soil, variety, and cultivation favorable, it is possible to have 
a crop failure because of a failure to control either insects or 
diseases. Fortunately, control of these two factors is possible 
although it requires labor and some expense. 

The general procedure is as follows : to destroy the spores 
of such diseases as potato scab, brown rot, black leg, stem 
rot, etc., the seed tubers should be treated, before planting, 
with a solution of formaldehyde (made by adding one pint 
of formaldehyde to thirty gallons of water) or with a solution 
of corrosive sublimate (four ounces of corrosive sublimate to 
thirty gallons of water) . 

During the growing season in order to control bhght and 
other diseases, the plants should be sprayed from time to 
time with a Bordeaux mixture (5-5-50 strength); to con- 
trol insects a mixture containing arsenic, such as Paris green 
or arsenate of lead, should be used. 

Details for the preparation of these mixtures, and the 
methods and time for their application will be found in the 
appendix. 

If possible only those tubers free from diseases should be 
used as seed. The seed should be planted in clean land. 
A long rotation should be practiced, because if soil is once 



TOBACCO 



129 



infected by such diseases as scab, it remains infected for 
several years. 

Harvesting. — Potatoes may be harvested any time after 
the tubers have matured; but early crops are often harvested 
before maturity in order to meet the summer market. 

Any method may be used which will get the tubers out 
of the ground without injury. Methods vary, from the use 
of a potato-fork or hook by hand on small areas, to the use of 
special digging machines, such as potato elevators, on large 
fields. 

Tobacco 

Since pioneer times tobacco has been of an agricultural 
importance. The success of tobacco growing depends more 
upon the soil conditions and management of the crop than 
upon climate. In a number of states natural soil conditions, 
here and there, are favorable for the successful production 
of this crop. The range of tobacco may be seen by noting, 
the position of the nine tobacco-growing states: Kentucky, 
North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Connecticut, Tennessee, Penn-. 
sylvania. South Carolina, and Wisconsin. Fourteen other 
states produce it in considerable quantities. The total farm 
value for the entire country, for 1915, was $96,041,000. 

The soil requirements vary with the kind of tobacco grown. 
In general, the mild, Kght, thin-leaf types, such as cigar- 
leaf tobacco, are produced on light sandy loams; while 
strong, dark, heavy types are grown on sandy clay loam. 
Tobacco is said to be '' hard on land," which means that 
the crops that follow do not yield well. This statement does 
not apply to well-managed farms where the succeeding crop 
is better than the average on the rest of the farm. But ro- 
tation must be practiced, for continuous cropping of tobacco 



I30 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

will not succeed. Fertilizers are often used, especially those 
containing phosphoric acid and potash. 

Tobacco is grown as a cash crop and in some locaHties as 
a main crop. Where it is produced along with other crops 
in general farming, there is a tendency to make tobacco the 
main crop to the neglect of other crops. This tendency is to 
be deplored; for the additional profit gained from the tobacco 
would doubtless be more than equalled by the profit secured 
from a well-balanced system of farming. 

The production of a tobacco crop is too complicated a 
procedure to discuss in detail here. Many of the operations 
require special skill and experience. 

Factory crops. — Included in these are sugar beets, to- 
matoes, sweet corn, peas, and cucumbers. According to the 
general practice, these crops are produced in cooperation with 
factories. Beet-sugar factories and canning factories enter in- 
to contracts with the farmers to buy certain products. The 
factories give directions for planting and caring for the crops, 
sometimes furnishing expert supervision and often furnish- 
ing seed. As the factory crops require considerable labor, the 
average farmer can devote only a part of his farm to their 
cultivation; but where factories are near, such crops are often 
useful as cash crops, and on small farms they may become 
the chief source of income. 



CHAPTER XII 
USE AND CARE OF THE FARM GARDEN 

Place of the vegetable garden on the farm. — The pro- 
duction of vegetables for home use is often neglected by the 
farmer. It is hard to beHeve that one whose business is 
producing crops should depend upon the village market 
instead of supplying his table from his own garden. Never- 
theless such a practice is not uncommon. The farmer seems 
to disHke the. care of a garden. It seems trivial work to him, 
and he beheves that it is cheaper and less trouble to buy 
table vegetables than to produce them. 

In some instances this attitude may be justified, as in 
regions where there is Httle summer rainfall. But on most 
farms a vegetable garden will give ample returns for all the 
labor spent upon it. It should supply a variety of fresh 
vegetables in season and produce surplus enough to be pre- 
served for winter use. 

Requirements for a farm garden. — Three factors are 
essential to the success of a farm garden: First, the plot 
should be small enough to prevent its proper care becoming 
a burden; second, the soil should be reinforced by a heavy 
application of well-rotted manure and then put into the best 
possible condition; third, a careful plan should be made well 
in advance, so as to provide for a variety and succession of 
vegetables sufficient for all home needs. 

If the soil is carefully fertihzed, a small plot, well-planned, 
wiU meet all the requirements of the average farm home. 

131 



132 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

If it is plowed in the fall and a liberal amount of well-rotted 
manure is then applied, the work necessary to put the soil in 
good condition in the spring will be much reduced. Besides, 
the organic matter added will tend to retain moisture and 
make the soil easy to work during the growing season. 

After this initial preparation of a garden plot has been 
made, a rotation may be estabHshed which will meet the soil 
requirements of the various vegetables, and, at the same time, 
reduce the amount of manure to be applied in any one year. 
Such a plan is sometimes known as the " three-field system." 
It is based upon the fact that vegetables may be divided into 
three groups, according to the richness of the soil needed for 
their best development. The first group requires heavily- 
fertilized soil. This group includes plants used for their 
tops or fruits, such as cabbage, lettuce, tomatoes, and corn. 
The second group requires soil of moderate fertiUty and 
includes the root crops, such as potatoes, turnips, radishes, 
carrots, etc. The third group requires no fertilizer unless 
the soil is very poor. Peas and beans belong to the third 
group. Being legumes, they can supply their own nitrogen. 

The three-field system is carried out as follows: The 
garden area is divided into three parts; the first is richly 
fertilized with manure balanced with acid phosphate; the 
second is sparingly fertilized with finely divided, well-rotted 
manure; the third is left unfertilized. On the first division 
are grown plants of the first group; on the second, plants of 
the second group; on the third, plants of the third group. 
In the second year, the division which, during the first year, 
bore plants of the first group, is planted to plants of the second 
group, and in the third year to plants of the third group. In 
the fourth year, as in the first year, it is richly fertilized and 
planted to plants of the first group. The division which, 



THE FARM GARDEN 133 

during the first year, bore plants of the second group is planted 
the second year to plants of the third group, and so on. Thus 
by rotating crops, the three divisions may indefinitely be 
kept in a condition best adapted to each of these three groups 
of plants. 

Another method that has been used with good results is 
to rotate garden crops with some legume, such as clover. 
This plan has two advantages. It gives the land a rest every 
third year and it increases the supply of humus and nitrogen 
in the soil. 

The method is as follows : The garden is divided into three 
equal parts; for the first year clover is sown on part i and 
vegetables on 2 and 3; for the second year, clover is sown 
on part 2, vegetables on i and 3; the third year, clover is 
sown on part 3, vegetables on i and 2. This completes the 
rotation which is then repeated. 

It will be a simple matter to get the garden started if a 
detailed plan is made and seed procured during the winter 
when there is plenty of time not needed for other farm work. 
During part of the winter months it might be well to have 
the class in agriculture make a planting plan for the garden, 
each pupil constructing a plan for his own home garden. 

There are two steps in making such a plan. First, the plot 
should be drawn to scale from actual measurements of the 
area ol ground to be used, each foot represented by a fraction 
of an inch on the drawing. For example, a plot 80 by 160 
feet, represented on a sheet of paper with a scale of one- 
eighth of an inch to a foot, would make a rectangle ten by 
twenty inches; a distance of three feet between rows 
would be indicated by a space three times |, or f of an 
inch. 

After the exact area of the garden has been drawn to 



134 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

scale, the accurate positions of all the vegetables to be 
planted may be fixed and the time of planting of each may- 
be indicated. 

If the plan is for the three-field system, the proper placing 
of the vegetables belonging to each group should be indicated. 
A planting table giving the time of planting and other details 
of our common vegetables should be consulted. 

It is especially important to arrange the planting plan to 
secure variety and succession. A quantity sufficient to supply 
all needs may thus be provided without the over supply that 
frequently occurs in a poorly planned farm garden. 

Care and protection. — By planting the vegetables in rows 
far enough apart to permit the use of a field cultivator, hand 
labor may be reduced to a minimum. The hoe and rake will 
be needed only for those parts not reached by the cultivator. 
Experience has shown that thorough cultivation increases 
both the yield and the quality of garden vegetables. 

Plant diseases and insects are apt to do much harm unless 
measures are taken for their control. The number of diseases 
and insects that attack garden plants is too large to be con- 
sidered here. The details of a means of control will be found 
in the references suggested in another paragraph. 

Sources of information. — Space does not permit further 
directions for planting or managing a garden but they may 
be found in references given in the appendix. The conditions 
brought on by the Great War, in the spring of 191 7, aroused 
an interest in gardening never before known in this country. 
In response to this interest easily understood and rehable 
information on gardening has been published by the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, U. S. Bureau of Education, State 
Agricultural Experiment Stations, Agricultural Colleges, and 
other state institutions in every state. These publications 



THE FARM GARDEN 135 

are available for any school and furnish detailed information 
applying to any particular locality. 

A job for boys and girls. — During the garden season of 
1918, about 1,500,000 boys and girls made gardens, and the 
value of the products from these gardens was estimated at 
$15,000,000. Before the War thousands of boys and girls 
in towns and cities made successful vegetable gardens which 
not only suppKed the home, but produced a surplus sufficient, 
when sold, to bring considerable return to the producer. 
Similar success attended the efforts of many boys and girls 
living on farms, enough to indicate that the problem of the 
farm garden might easily be solved if undertaken by the 
boys and girls. In most cases a business arrangement could 
be made, whereby the gardener would receive a sum for the 
vegetables supplied to the farm home, equivalent to their 
cost if bought at the village market. 

Preserving garden products. — Preserving food produced 
in the garden by canning and drying saves much that would 
otherwise be wasted and, at the same time, provides a winter 
supply for the home. The great value of this work was 
demonstrated during the War. It is estimated that, in 1918, 
1,450,000,000 quart jars of produce were preserved. Con- 
servation of food should go on also in times of peace. Com- 
plete directions for canning all kinds of vegetables and fruits 
will be found in references in the appendix. 

Hot beds and cold frames. — In the Northern States the 
garden season may be much extended by the use of hot beds 
and cold frames for the production of early vegetables. The 
average farmer may not feel that he can afford the time 
necessary for starting vegetables in this way. But if, as has 
been suggested, the boy or the girl on the farm undertakes 
to supply the home with vegetables, the use of the hot bed 



136 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



and cold frame will be profitable as well as interesting. Early- 
vegetables command a high market price, and those not 
needed at home may readily be sold. 

Construction of hot bed and cold frames. — A hot bed 
consists of a pit, a frame, and a sash or glass cover. The 
dimensions of the pit and frame will depend upon the size 
of the sash to be used. The pit should be two feet deep, 
and the frame on the north side twelve inches from the ground 

and on the south side, six 
inches. The pit should 
be filled with manure 
which has begun to decom- 
pose. On top of the man- 
ure a six-inch layer of good 
garden soil should be 
placed. The object of the 
manure is to produce heat 
as it ferments or decom- 
poses. After the hot bed 
has been prepared in this 
way it is ready for planting. When planting is done, the 
bed should be kept moist and covered with glass. On warm 
days, after the plants are up, the sash should be raised a few 
inches on one side, but always let down before night. In 
cold weather the plants should be protected further by cover- 
ing the sash with a thick layer of straw or other covering so 
as to retain the heat. 

A cold frame is just like the hot bed except for the pit and 
manure. It is a protection for the plants that are later to be 
removed to the garden. Plants cannot with safety be set 
from the hot bed directly into the garden. The change from 
warm to cool conditions is too sudden. By being transplanted 




Diagram of section of hot bed showing 
method of construction. 



THE FARM GARDEN 137 

from the hot bed to the cold frame, the plants are gradually 
hardened and can then be transferred with perfect safety to 
the garden. 

Truck or market gardening. — The principles of gardening 
that have been presented are appHed on a large scale to truck 
or market gardening, which is a special kind of farming 
devoted to the production of vegetables. This kind of garden- 
ing is further specialized by hmiting the production to a few 
kinds of vegetables, generally so selected as to cover the 
entire growing season. Truck farming or market gardening 
is most profitable near cities where markets are easily ac- 
cessible. 



CHAPTER XIII 
FRUIT RAISING ON THE FARM 

Fruit as a special crop. — Fruit farming has become a 
highly specialized industry requiring expert management in 
the care of orchards and marketing of the products. In 
most cases where there are regions particularly well adapted 
to the production of some kind of fruit, we find many farmers 
giving their entire attention to fruit raising, as the production 
of oranges and other citrus fruits in Cahfornia and Florida, 
apples in Washington, Oregon, Michigan, New York and in 
portions of several other states. 

The importance of one kind of special farming is shown 
in the value of the product — apples — for a single year. In 
191 5, the apple crop amounted to more than $60,000,000. 
Facihties for keeping fruit in cold storage until ready for the 
market, its high price on the market and a growing demand 
seem to indicate a promising field for special fruit farming. 
But cHmate, soil, relation to markets, and other factors are 
so important that much care must be taken in selecting a 
site for an orchard which will be profitable. Fruit regions 
are so extensively exploited by advertising, that a prospective 
investor should make a careful personal investigation and 
consult with the fruit experts connected with the State 
Agricultural Experiment Station rather than buy upon the 
advice of a land promoter. 

Place of fruit raising on the farm. — Beside the regions 
mentioned in the brief reference to fruit farming, there are a 

138 



FRUIT RAISING ON THE FARM 139 

great many farms where enough fruit may be produced to 
supply all the home needs and often furnish a considerable 
surplus for sale. Like the farm garden, the farm orchard 
has been much neglected. There was a time when most 
farms in the Northern States included apple orchards, but 
these have been neglected until good farm orchards are now 
rare. The neglect of orchards may be accounted for in part 
by the difficulty of keeping fruit trees free from disease and 
injuries occasioned by insects. Such injuries are much more 
common now than formerly. But in spite of these difficulties, 
the advantage of having fresh fruit for home use is, alone, 
sufficient to encourage the maintenance of a good variety of 
fruit on every farm where climatic conditions are favorable. 
Several things are necessary to the successful estabUshment 
and maintenance of fruit production on the farm. 

Variety and succession. — Since the chief object of the 
farm orchard is to supply the farm home, attention must 
be given to securing a variety in kinds of fruit, as well as a 
succession of ripening periods distributed through several 
months. In making such a selection, it will be necessary to 
consult bulletins and circulars from State Agricultural Ex- 
periment Stations, and catalogs of reHable dealers. 

Succession may be secured first, by planting several kinds 
of fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, cherries, and small 
fruit; second, by planting several varieties of each kind, 
such as fall and winter apples, early and late peaches. But 
in making such a selection, adaptabihty to the cHmate of 
the locaHty in which they are to be grown must be considered. 
Hardiness sufficient to withstand the cold of winter is an 
important quality. 

After the various kinds of fruit stock have been decided 
upon, they should be purchased from a reliable nursery which 



I40 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 




will guarantee them to be as represented. It is of first 
importance to know that the nursery company is absolutely 
rehable, one that cannot afford to injure its reputation by 
selling stock that will not develop as represented. 

Establishing an orchard. — The selection of a suitable 
location for an orchard is of great importance because of its 
permanent character. In order to give the orchard the right 
kind of a start, it is also important to know when to plant 
the trees and how each kind should receive its first pruning. 

Selection of site. — 
Convenience, soil, and 
slope should be taken 
into consideration 
when selecting a site. 
On most farms con- 
venience will be an 
important matter, for 
fruit should be near at 
hand so as to encourage 
its free use. The soil 
should be rich, well prepared, and well drained. Where pos- 
sible a north slope is preferable to a south slope or level 
ground. 

Time to plant. — Fruit trees, vines and bushes should be 
set out while in a dormant condition, that is, after the leaves 
are off in the fall and before the buds swell in the spring. 
This may either be in the fall or in the early spring. ' Where 
winters are severe, spring planting will generally succeed best. 
Getting the trees ready to plant. — Trees come from the 
nursery carefully packed. When unpacked, the roots must 
not be allowed to dry by exposure to wind or sun. As soon 
as received they should be set out, or if that is not possible, 



Diagram showing how to prune the roots of 
a fruit tree before transplanting. 

A. As the plant comes from the nursery. 

B. After being pruned. 



FRUIT RAISING ON THE FARM 



141 



they should be " heeled in." Heeling in is done by placing 
the roots of the trees in a trench with one sloping side, allow- 
ing the trunks to rest against the earth of the slope. As 
soon as the trees are removed from the trench or from the 
original package, the roots of each tree should be dipped in 
water to which sufficient clay has been added to make a 
mush. The moist clay keeps the roots from becoming dry. 
All injured roots should be cut off. 

Setting the trees. — First of all, the soil of the area to be 
planted should be put in the best possible condition, which 




Diagram showing kind of hole to dig for transplanting a tree. 

A. Hole of right size and shape, allowing freedom for good root distribution. 

B. Hole too narrow, roots bent. 

C. Hole carelessly made, roots crowded. (Ohio State Agr. College.) 

includes a hberal application of well-rotted manure. The 
importance of this careful preparation for setting trees is 
greater than is commonly supposed. The careless method 
of setting a tree in a hole in the ground and then letting it 
take care of itself generally leads to disappointment. Fruit 
trees need, for their best development, the same care in the 
preparation of the soil that other plants need. 

Next, the position of each tree should be indicated by a 
small stake. In laying out or planning the planting, two 
things must be kept in mind: first, straight rows facilitate 
cultivation; second, there should be adequate distance be- 
tween the trees. Usually the latter point is not sufficiently 



142 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



considered. A safe rule is to allow enough space for each 
tree to develop, so that when mature it will neither shade 
another tree nor be shaded by it. 

After the position of each tree has been settled, a hole 
should be dug, wider than the diameter of the root system 
of the tree and somewhat deeper. The soil at the bottom 




Diagrams showing where a fruit tree should be pruned. 

A. A two-year tree as it comes from the nursery. 

B. After pruning. C A year later. D. After 
pruning. 



of the hole should be loose and finely divided. The tree 
should be placed in the hole with its roots carefully 
straightened. The dirt should be well packed around the 
roots so as to bring the soil into close contact with them. 
If the soil is dry, water should be added. As the other trees 
are put out in the same way attention should be given to 
keeping the rows straight. 



FRUIT RAISING ON THE FARM 143 

Pruning. — Sometime before the opening of the spring 
buds, each tree should be pruned. The object of pruning 
is to preserve a balance between the roots and branches. 
Since many of the roots have been destroyed in transplanting, 
there will not be enough to supply the branches with water 
and food material if the branches are left as they were in 
the nursery. Trees properly pruned have a much better 
growth than those left unpruned. 

Trees should be cared for. — Giving the fruit trees a good 
start, as important as it is, will not insure the successful 
production of fruit. They must also have good care; care 
of the soil, care in pruning, and care in protection from injuries 
made by parasitic fungi and insects. 

Soil. — The soil should receive the same attention as that 
given to any other well-cultivated crop. A good mulch should 
be maintained to conserve moisture. From time to time, 
manure should be worked into the soil in order to increase 
its water-holding capacity and to add to the store of plant 
food. The same results are often obtained by sowing a 
legume, such as clover, and plowing it under. Orchardists 
have lately found that sweet clover is valuable for this 
purpose because of its extreme hardiness and rank growth. 

Pruning. — It is difficult to do more in a few words than 
to present merely the principles of pruning. The details, as 
appHed to different kinds of fruit trees, must be found in 
special references. The object in pruning a young tree is to 
control its shape so that sunshine may reach each part. It 
is desirable that a fruit tree should have a low, spreading 
shape so that the fruit may easily be gathered. In securing 
this shape, the branches may be so developed as to let sun- 
shine in to all leaf-bearing parts of the tree. It is also possible, 
when the tree begins to bear fruit, to control the setting of 



144 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



the fruit so that it will be borne on the stronger branches 
near the trunk, thus reducing the possibiUty of branches 
being broken by the weight of the fruit. 

Insects and diseases. — Each kind of tree has its own 
difficulties with insects and diseases. For example, the fruit 
of the apple tree is injured by a disease known as apple rot 
and by an insect called the codling moth. Apple production 
is interfered with by many other diseases and insects, but 
these are mentioned as important examples. Control of 
insects and diseases is absolutely necessary for successful 
fruit -raising. In general, spores which may develop into 
fungi and cause disease are destroyed by means of chemical 
mixtures known as fungicides, and insects are killed by means 

of poisons. Both are applied in 
the form of a solution by means 
of sprays. Usually the application 
of a fungicide for control of plant 
diseases is made in the spring 
before the buds open, but in some 
cases it may be made when the 
tree is in full leaf. In either case 
the spray is intended to kill the 
spores of the disease-producing 
fungus. For example, if peach 
trees are sprayed before the buds 
swell, with the Bordeaux mixture, the spores of the fungus 
which causes leaf curl will be destroyed, and this injury 
controlled. The control of insects by the appHcation of 
poisons depends upon the habits of the insects. For example, 
it is the habit of the plum curcuKo to make a hole in the 
plum and deposit eggs. She may be injured before egg laying 
is accomphshed if a poison, such as arsenate of lead, is 




Diagrams showing successive 
stages in making a graft. (Cal- 
ifornia Agr. Exp. Station.) 



FRUIT RAISING ON THE FARM 



145 



applied after the bloom has fallen when the young plums are 
just beginning to form. 

Plant diseases and insects not only interfere with fruit 
production, but, to a 





certain extent, with every 
other kind of plant produc- 
tion. Some of the main 
general facts relating to 
each are presented in 
Chapters XV and XVII. 
Bulletins and circulars are 
furnished by the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture 
and by State Agricultural 
Experiment Stations, 
which give detailed instruc- 
tions for the control of 
plant diseases and insects 
that are associated with 
each kind of fruit. These 
should be studied in connec- 
tion with this chapter. In 
the appendix will be found 
a spraying program for 
orchards and fruit gardens. 
Improving the orchard 
by grafting and budding. 
— After fruit trees have become established, it may be 
desirable to extend the varieties. This may be done without 
further planting, by grafting and budding other varieties on 
to trees already developed. In this way one tree may be 
made to produce several kinds of fruit. 



process 



of 



Diagrams showing the 
budding 

A. Twig from which buds are cut. 

B. Cutting bud from twig. 

C. Making T-shaped cut for inser- 
tion of bud. 

D. Bark raised for insertion of bud. 

E. Bud inserted. 

F. Bud tied on. 

G. Bud developing into twig. 
(Missouri Agr. Exp. Station.) 



146 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

The principles of grafting and budding are simple. They 
consist essentially in bringing the freshly-cut surface of the 
branch of the tree (called stock) on which the graft or bud 
is to be set into contact with the cut surface of the twig to 
be grafted (called cion), or into contact with the bud to be 
set. The cut surfaces must be brought together in such a 
way as to make a portion of the cambium, or growing layer 
of the stock, touch the cambium of the cion or the bud. In 
the case of grafts, they are held in place by grafting wax 
pressed around the union; in the case of buds, by means of 
a coarse string or bit of raffia. 

Some trees, such as the peach, are easily budded, while 
others, such as the apple, are grafted more successfully. 
Grafting and budding take some time and attention, but the 
results are interesting and often worth while. Boys and 
girls can do the work quite as successfully as adults. 



CHAPTER XIV 
PLANT IMPROVEMENT 

Meaning of plant improvement. — Plant improvement refers 
to the practice of securing high-yielding plants and keeping 
them at a high level of production. Agricultural plants vary 
greatly in their capacity for production. Attention has been 
called to the importance of selecting plants which are best 
adapted to the soil and cUmate of the particular region where 
they are to be grown. But this is not the only selection 
necessary to secure a high yield. Among plants of the same 
kind there are differences that must be considered in order 
that maximum production may be reached. For example, 
the yield of a single variety of corn, such as Reid's yellow 
dent, will vary in the same locality, although the fertility of 
the soil, preparation of the seed bed, cultivation, and other 
factors influencing the growth of the plant are similar. Other 
things being equal, the greatest yield will occur when the 
most careful attention is paid to the selection of seed. It 
requires but little more labor and expense to produce a crop 
from high-yielding plants than is necessary to produce one 
from low-yielding plants. 

How high-yielding and otherwise desirable plants are 
secured. — Considering only those qualities possessed by 
plants themselves, and not those resulting from fertility of 
the soil or from other agencies influencing plant growth, 
highly productive plants, or plants having exceptional quali- 
ties, are secured in four ways: by introducing plants from 

147 



148 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

other countries; by propagating new plants as they are 
noticed among other plants of the farm; by crossing plants, 
thereby combining the good quahties of two or more plants 
into one; by selection. It will be of interest to notice each 
of these separately. 

Introduction of foreign plants. — Most of our agricultural 
plants have been brought to the United States from other 
lands. Our country was settled by people from different 
parts of the world. When they came here, they brought 
with them seeds and plants from their old homes. Some of 
the plants were well adapted to their new environment and 
flourished even better than in the old. The successful plants 
became well estabhshed, while the production of others not 
so well suited has been abandoned. In some such way as 
this, many of our most important farm plants were developed 
and extended to different parts of the country adapted to 
their growth. At the same time, largely through unconscious 
selection, they were improved and became in many instances 
better than the original parent plants. 

Many farmers, who were able, explored other lands and 
brought back to this country plants that held promise of 
being useful here. For example, the Mediterranean wheat 
was introduced, in 1819, from the islands of the Mediterranean 
Sea. 

As early as 1839 the United States Department of Agri- 
culture became interested in making similar explorations. 
Between 1839 and 1880, sorghum, Kafir corn, varieties of 
sugar cane, and other plants were introduced. The results 
of these early explorations seemed so valuable that, in 1898, 
substantial appropriations began to be made to carry on this 
work. In 1901, when the Bureau of Plant Industry was 
formed, Plant Introduction was included as a division of 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 



149 



this Bureau. The purpose of this division was to explore 
the world systematically and to bring back to this country 
plants that might be valuable to our agricultural production. 

As now organized, this division consists of two branches: 
that of exploration, which places several men in the field to 
travel over the world in search of useful plants; and that of 
propagation, which tries out the plants sent here by the 
explorers to determine their agricultural value. If they 
prove valuable when fully tested, they are distributed to 
farmers for actual introduction. 

Many plants, some more productive than similar kinds 
already grown here, and others, new kinds of great agri- 
cultural value, have been found and introduced. Among 
the former, for example, are the durum wheats introduced in 
1898 from Russia. These wheats are well adapted to the 
semi- arid regions east of the Rocky Mountains, extending 
from Texas to North Dakota, which are too dry for ordinary 
wheat. Besides, the durum wheats are especially valuable 
for the manufacture of macaroni. The production of these 
wheats, in 19 19, amounted to about $50,000,000. Among 
other plants that have been successfully introduced are 
Japanese rice, date palm, Swedish oats, Turkestan alfalfa, 
and Egyptian cotton. 

The work of the government in plant introduction is 
deserving of more than this brief account. Further infor- 
mation may be found by consulting recent yearbooks of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

Sudden appearance of new plants among the old. — Oc- 
casionally, in nature, a plant will appear which is noticeably 
different from its companions. The same is true of culti- 
vated plants. When a plant is found that is clearly different 
from others of its kind, it may be better than the others. 



I50 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



It should be watched closely and the seed saved in order to 
propagate more like it, so that it may be tested. It may 
prove to be of no especial importance, or it may have some 
very desirable quahties not possessed 
by others of its kind. 

A number of important cultivated 
plants seem to have originated in this 
way. The Fultz wheat is an example. 
In Pennsylvania in the summer of 
1862, Abraham Fultz when going 
through his field of Lancaster wheat, 
which is a bearded variety, happened 
to notice a plant whose heads were 
not bearded. This was so unusual 
that he kept close watch over the 
plant during the remainder of the 
growing season, and at harvest time 
he saved the heads of it. He re- 
moved the grains, planted them in 
a plot to themselves, and later similar 
beardless plants appeared. Again he 
saved the seed and planted a still 
larger plot. This operation was re- 
peated until he produced enough seed 
to plant his entire farm. He after- 
wards turned over to the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture a considerable 
amount of seed for distribution. Since 
then the Fultz wheat has been 
considered one of the best varieties adapted to the eastern 
part of the Corn Belt. 

The Clawson wheat, a variety with white grains, first 




Pistil of flower showing 
single ovule at time of 
pollination. 

A. Pollen tube extend- 
ing from pollen grain on 
the stigma to embryo sac 
which contains the egg 
nucleus. 

B. Egg nucleus. 

C. Fertilizing body which 
has come from the pollen 
grain by means of the pollen 
tube — C and B unite to 
form the fertiUzed egg. 
For details see figure on 
page 151. 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 



151 



appeared in a field of Fultz, in 1865. The Rudy originated 
in a large field of wheat near Troy, Ohio, in 1871. The Con- 
cord grape, nectarine, navel orange, and many other valuable 
kinds of fruit probably originated 
in a similar way. 

Improving plants by crossing. — 
In order to understand crossing 
or hybridizing, it will be neces- 
sary to review briefly the way in 
which plants produce seed. For 
this review we shall begin with 
the flower. The essential parts 
of the flower are the stamens and 
pistil. Each stamen has at its 
end a small sack containing 
minute structures called pollen 
grains. The pistil is enlarged at 
its lower end, forming the ovary 
in which one or more small bodies 
are located from which seed are 
developed. But these bodies are 
unable to develop into seed with- 
out the aid of pollen. A pollen 
grain which may happen to lodge 
on the upper end of the pistil, 
called stigma, sends an out- 
growth like a slender thread, 
called pollen tube, down the neck 
of the pistil into the ovary. A 
small part of the pollen substance passes down this thread, 
or pollen tube, and when it reaches the ovary unites with the 
seed-producing body inside. This union is called fertili- 




Embryo sac of lily showing 
fertilization taking place. 

A . Pollen tube. 

B. Egg. 

C. Fertilizing element (nu- 
cleus) from pollen tube uniting 
with B. From the cell produced 
by this union the germ of the 
seed develops. 



152 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

zation, and after it occurs the seed-producing body may 
develop into a seed. 

The signihcance of fertihzation Kes in the fact that each 
of the two bodies which unite in this process carries with it 
characters of the parent producing it. If the fertihzing 
bodies are from the same plant, the seed which is formed by 
the union will produce a plant like the parent plant. But 
if these bodies come from different plants, such as different 
varieties of cowpeas, the seed formed from this union will 
produce a plant in some respects unlike either parent, but 
having some characters of each. In such instances the new 
plant will combine the characters of both parents, although 
some of the characters of each will dominate, or make ob- 
scure similar characters of the other. 

By observing the principles of heredity, plant breeders are 
able to combine the desirable characters of different parents. 
Such a procedure is known as crossing or hybridizing. For 
example, a smooth, bearded variety of wheat may be crossed 
with a rough, beardless variety so as to produce a smooth, 
beardless variety. This will be a combination of characters 
that did not exist before, and in this case, probably a more 
desirable combination than that possessed by either of the 
parents. An almost endless variety of useful plants has 
been developed in this way. «i 

Some of the results of crossing are so wonderful as to 
attract wide attention. Perhaps the best known plant 
breeder who made use of this method is Luther Burbank. 
Among the plants that he has been able to develop are va- 
rieties of plums, prunes, potatoes, chestnuts, walnuts, and 
many flowers, such as the Shasta daisy. 

Scarcely less wonderful is the work of Professor N. E. 
Hansen of the South Dakota Agricultural College. He has 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 



153 



developed a plum which will withstand the severe cold as 
far north as Winnepeg, a kind of alfalfa that will grow in a 
cold climate, and many other interesting and valuable plants. 
Reference should be made to the results achieved by the 
U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, in which G. W. Oliver has 
had a promiiient part, as an expert propagator. Among 




A good type of ear of corn for field selection. It is growing on 
a vigorous plant. The ear is at the right height and has a desirable 
angle. (Indiana Agr. Exp. Station.) 

these results are a rust-proof asparagus, improved varieties 
of lettuce, alfalfa, cowpeas, and of many other plants. 

Improving plants by means of selection. — The average 
farmer will not have the time or experience to use the methods 
just described to secure better plants, except the method of 
looking out for new plants that may appear in his fields. 
He should know about them, however, so that he may secure 
the new plants introduced by the Bureau of Plant Industry 
or developed by expert plant breeders, if it seems to his 
advantage. 



154 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

The method of improving plants by selection is one that 
every farmer should employ on his own farm. Selection is 
based upon the fact that plant characters are handed down, 
or inherited, from one generation to another. The appli- 
cation of selection Hes in the use of seed from desirable plants. 
There is no way of telHng by the appearance of the seed 
whether it will produce low- or high-yielding plants. For 
example, several ears of corn may be nearly perfect in size, 
shape, and in other desirable quaUties. But there is no 
means of knowing whether or not these desirable qualities 
will appear in the crop produced from these ears, unless 
each ear is tested separately. In fact, there is apt to be 
much difference in their ability to produce. 

A description of an actual trial of this kind will illustrate 
this point. Thirty ears of corn, uniformly good in outward 
appearance, were used. Enough seed from each ear was 
planted to produce a row of one hundred: hills. When the 
rows were harvested separately and the corn weighed, the 
results showed a variation in yield, per row, from thirty to 
one hundred and twenty pounds. Only five rows gave a 
yield of over seventy-five pounds each. In other words, 
the trial showed only five ears of high-yielding corn, the rest 
were low. 

There are several steps to be observed in securing better 
plants by selection. These may be made clear by using corn 
as an illustration. 

Initial selection. — Initial selection is made in the field 
during the latter part of the growing season. Those plants 
showing vigorous development, having broad, dark green 
leaves, well-formed ears neither too upright nor too pendant, 
a convenient height, well-developed brace roots to prevent 
lodging, an absence of suckers, and other desirable characters, 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 155 

should be marked in such a way as to make them easily 
noticed when the corn is husked. When mature, the ears 
from all the selected plants are kept separate and cared for 
according to suggestions made in Chapter VIII. 

Final selection. — Final selection may be put into practice 
shortly before planting time in the spring. First, each ear 
saved should be examined carefully to discover such characters 
as injuries from disease, poor shape of ear or kernels, poorly 




Harvesting at end of an ear-to-row test. Shows method of determining 
which seed ears have produced the greatest yield. (U.S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture.) 

filled butt or tip, and any other features undesirable in an 
ear of corn. Defective ears should be thrown out. Next, 
a germinating test should be made of the remainder and the 
ones showing poor germination should be thrown out. From 
the remaining ears, twenty to fifty of the best should be 
selected for the ear-to-row trial, the others may be used for 
planting the regular crop. 

Ear-to-row trial. — An ear-to-row test, as the name indi- 
cates, means the planting of one row from each ear, usually 
a row of one hundred hills. A corner of the field which is to 



156 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

be planted in corn is laid off in rows for the test plot. Each 
row is numbered to correspond to the number of the ear that 
is to furnish seed for that row. About 350 kernels are taken 
for planting from each ear and placed in a bag marked with 
the number of the ear. The remainder is left on the cob 
and put away for possible future use. After this preparation, 
each row is planted according to number, row number one 
from ear number one, etc. The plot should receive the same 
care and cultivation as the rest of the field. During the 
growing season the various rows in the test plot should be 
examined from time to time, and those plants showing disease 
or other faults should be detasseled. When fully ripe, the 
corn from each row is harvested separately and weighed. 
The corn from rows having the highest yield is saved for 
further trial. The rest may be used for any other purpose. 
Ten or twenty of the best ears from the highest-yielding 
rows should be saved for the second-year test. 

Multiplying plot and second-year test. — For the ear-to- 
row test of the second year, select for use the best ears pro- 
duced from the high-yielding rows of the first year's test 
and the kernels left on the ears saved out of the original 
planting, which correspond to these high-yielding rows. 

For the multiplying plot, select the good ears remaining 
in the high-yielding rows and plant in a separate plot to 
furnish seed for the farm. Since all the seed used in it is from 
high-yielding rows of the original test plot, it is reasonable 
to expect the multiplying plot to furnish high-producing 
seed corn. By this means of selection, high-yielding seed 
may be developed in time for general planting the third 
year, but it is desirable to continue the ear-to-row trial a 
few more years, until several high-yielding strains have been 
fully established. 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 



157 





A 


E 




[7 




? 








^ 














Q 


1 

H 




1 


- 


1 


1 

K 



The yield may be increased further by crossing. The 
result of the ear-to-row tests is really the separation of high- 
yielding strains from a mixture of low, medium, and high- 
yielding plants. Experiments made under the direction of 
the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station have 
shown that an increase of as much 
as ten bushels per acre may be 
secured by using seed produced 
by the crossing of two high-yield- 
ing strains, as compared with 
the yield of either parent alone. 
In farm practice, all that is neces- 
sary is to plant alternate rows of 
two high-yielding strains that 
have been developed by the ear- 
to-row test. The seed thus pro- 
duced is used for the next year's 
planting. A separate plot of each 
pure strain must be maintained in 
order to keep up a supply of seed 
for future crossing. 

A recent modification of this 
plan has even greater promise. It 
is essentially a double cross. Two 
pairs of high-yielding strains are 
crossed. The plants resulting from this cross are recrossed. 
Seed from these plants produce a strain of corn of higher 
yield than the original stock. After the final strain has been 
established it may be maintained by ordinary careful methods 
of selection. 

While the method of improvement just outlined may seem 
somewhat difficult, it really requires but little time and effort. 



Diagram showing double cross 
of corn to secure increase in 
yield. 

A, B, and C, D are ears of 
high-yielding strains selected 
by ear-to-row method. 

A and B are crossed, produc- 
ing E. 

C and D are crossed, produc- 
ing F. 

E and F are then crossed, pro- 
ducing G, H, I, J, K, etc. 
These ears furnish seed for 
general planting, producing 
maximum yield. 



158 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

It should result in the development of seed capable of pro- 
ducing a much higher average yield than that obtained by 
the usual methods of corn selection. An increase of at least 
ten bushels per acre is not too much to expect. There is 
probably no other means of increasing production with as 
little additional labor and expense as this. 

Four-hill-unit method of improving potatoes by selec- 
tion. The same principles of selection are used in the 
tuber-unit method of improving potatoes. The essential 
features are as follows : 

The initial selection is made in the field of good tubers 
from high-yielding hills. The tubers selected should each 
weigh about five ounces, should be entirely free from evi- 
dences of disease, and should conform to type. 

Each tuber is cut into quarters and planted in four hills, 
the four hills forming one unit. Other units are planted in 
the same way, but, to avoid confusion, a greater space is 
left between units than between the hills of a single unit. 
For the test plot of the first season at least one hundred 
units should be started. A system of numbering should be 
followed in order that an accurate record of each unit may 
be kept. A careful observation of the plants should be made 
from time to time, and a record kept of such quahties as 
vigor, growth, freedom from disease, and of other points 
that may be of value in determining the best plants. All 
weak and undesirable units should be eHminated entirely as 
soon as discovered. This may be done either by checking 
off their records and paying no more attention to them or by 
removing the plants entirely. 

Finally, the tubers of each unit are harvested separately 
and put into a separate bag. Only those tubers of the highest 
yielding units should be preserved. These should be further 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT 159 

examined for quality, size, and trueness to type, and only 
those units that come up to a good standard should be re- 
tained. Ten of the best tubers of the selected units are to 
be used for the next year's test. 

The second year each ten tubers saved from the 
desirable units of the first year are quartered and planted 
to a unit of forty hills. The same procedure is followed as 
in the first season. The best tubers of the best forty-hill 
units should be saved for planting the third season. By this 
time, high-yielding strains of desirable tubers will be es- 
tablished, with enough tubers to plant a large plot. But 
forty or more exceptionally good tubers from the best forty- 
hill units should be saved to continue the best pure lines or 
units. At the end of the third year enough seed of high- 
yielding strains will be secured for most of the planting needed 
for the farm. Besides, the extra tubers may be sold for seed 
at high prices. 

The investment of time and labor in developing a superior 
strain of potatoes by this method is small compared with 
the results that may be attained. For example, one farmer 
was able in a few years to establish a strain which gave him 
a yield averaging 282 bushels per acre for nine years, while 
his neighbors secured an average yield of approximately only 
150 bushels. The difference of 132 bushels per acre would 
seem to be a good return for the time and trouble needed to 
establish a high-yielding strain of potatoes. 

Improving other plants by selection. — This same meth- 
od of getting better plants by selection may be applied to 
other crops such as wheat, oats, barley, etc. In this case 
smaller plots should be used, otherwise the procedure is 
essentially the same as for corn. 

In several states plant-improvement associations have been 



i6o PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

formed for cooperative work in developing high-yielding 
strains of different crops, by selection. The results obtained 
in Wisconsin by such associations illustrate what can be 
done for plant improvement in this way. These associations, 
with the assistance of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
Station, have developed high-yielding strains of dent and 
flint corn, barley, wheat, oats and other farm plants. Similar 
results have been obtained through cooperative work among 
farmers of Indiana and the State Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 

It may not be out of place here to make a suggestion to 
the boys living in a corn- or potato-growing region. In a 
few years any boy could develop corn or potato tubers for 
seed which would bring high prices on the market. If such 
a scheme were begun when he was in the eighth grade, his 
product would be ready for sale by his second year in high 
school and would continue, becoming larger each year. In 
this way, he could provide means to continue his education 
in an agricultural college or elsewhere. In addition he would 
not only secure a return for himself, but would be doing a 
real service to the farmers of his community. 



CHAPTER XV 

PLANT DISEASES 

Interference with plant growth. — The influence of a 
fertile, carefully prepared and cultivated soil and of high- 
yielding plants in crop production has been considered some- 
what in detail. But even when these important and necessary 
provisions for producing crops are made, production will not 
necessarily come up to its possibilities, owing to the inter- 
ference of harmful agencies that are always operating to a 
certain extent. 

Such agencies are plant diseases, weeds and insects. While 
the losses occasioned by them cannot be prevented entirely, 
they may be controlled in some measure. Such control must 
be directed by an understanding of the nature of the injuries 
and of the agent concerned. In order to present a basis for 
such an understanding, a chapter will be devoted to the 
discussion of some of the most important facts relating to 
each of these agencies. 

What is meant by plant diseases. — Our association with 
plants is largely with those that bear flowers and produce 
seeds. But there are many thousand kinds of other plants, 
sometimes referred to as lower plants, which we do not easily 
notice. Of the lower plants, those of one group, known as 
fungi, are distinguished by the absence of chlorophyll, or 
leaf green, and consequently are unable to make carbo- 
hydrates, such as sugar and starch. For this reason the 

i6i 



1 62 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

fungi must get such substances already made. Some of 
them — molds, mushrooms, puff balls, and species of bacteria 
■ — rely upon dead material, such as the remains of other 
plants, for their supply of food material. Others — rusts, 
smuts, mildew, bhghts, and other kinds of bacteria — satisfy 
their needs by attaching themselves to other living plants. 
These latter are called parasitic fungi, and the plant that 
gives them a living is called the host. Since a parasitic 
fungus deprives its host of starch and other food material, 
and makes harmful poisons, it weakens and otherwise injures 
the host, thus producing conditions known as disease. 

In order to understand how these injuries are made and 
how disease spreads from one plant to another, it will be 
necessary to consider how fungi grow. 

How fungi grow. — There are two essential parts of most 
fungi : One, the food-getting part, is composed of a net work 
of fine threads or tubes, called the mycelium, which usually 
penetrates the food substance on which the fungus grows. 
The other, the reproductive part, is composed also of fine 
threads which bear small bodies called spores. The spores, be- 
ing light, are easily blown about by the wind or being sticky 
are carried by insects, animals, or water to different places, 
where, if conditions are favorable, they develop into plants 
like the ones that produced them. Sometimes the spores 
are borne free at the ends of the spore-bearing threads, and 
thus are easily transferred from the parent fungus to other 
places, ready to start new fungus growths. Sometimes they 
are enclosed in cases. In this instance, the walls of the case 
break when the spores are ripe, thus releasing them for dis- 
tribution. 

Bacteria have already been described in connection with 
the soil, but should be considered here with fungi, since they 



PLANT DISEASES 



163 



behave in many respects like fungi and are regarded as such 
by many botanists. Bacteria grow to a certain size and then 
divide. This growth and division continues until a great 
number of individuals is formed. Under certain conditions, 
such as lack of moisture or food, they cease to develop, but 
undergo changes which enable them to keep alive. When 
in such a condition they may be carried about by the wind 
or other means until con- 
ditions favorable for re- 
newed activity are met. 
Some bacteria get their 
food from other Kving 
plants, thus becoming 
parasites, and cause 
disease. An example of 
this type is the organism 
causing pear bhght. 

In order to recognize 
the way in which fungi 
grow, it might be profita- 
ble to study the common 
black mold as it is seen on 

bread left in damp places. The black mold does not ordin- 
arily injure plants by causing disease, but a study of its man- 
ner of producing spores will aid in the understanding of par- 
asitic fungi which are harder to study. At first the black 
mold consists of a net work of fine threads spreading over 
and extending into the bread. Later very small, dark specks 
may be seen on the upper surface of the mass of threads. 
On close inspection it will be seen that each black speck is a 
tiny ball borne upon the end of an upright thread. When 
examined with a lens, the ball will be seen to be filled with 




Diagrams showing essential parts of the 
black mold. 

A. Showing how spore cases are related 
to other parts of the mold. 

B. Single spore case showing spores 
inside. 



1 64 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 




Mildew 



still smaller bodies. These small bodies are spores. If some 
of these spores are scattered over the surface of a piece of 
damp bread, each will start to grow and a new growth of 
mold will soon appear. 

Powdery mildews, which frequently are found on the leaves of 
the lilac, rose, and other plants, are parasitic fungi. Small pro- 
jections, called haustoria, extend from the threads and secure 

food from the living 
cells of the leaf. The 
threads are on the 
surface of the leaf, 
giving it the appear- 
ance of being covered 
with fine down or 
cobweb. Among 
these threads ' on the 
surface of the leaf, 
spores are to be found, 
some uncovered and 
others enclosed in 
spore cases. Some of 
these spores are carried, when ripe, by the wind or by other 
means to uninfected leaves where they develop into new 
fungi. 

Means of control of plant diseases. — There are several 
general methods of control of plant diseases. 

One method is based upon the destruction of spores which 
may infect healthy plants. This is accomplished when seed 
is disinfected by means of a chemical compound such as 
formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate, or the spores killed by 
means of heat. For example, seed potatoes may be treated 
with formaldehyde before planting. Oats may be treated 



and 2 different 



A . Chains of summer spores 
stages of development. 

B. (i) Spore case containing sacs of winter 
spores. 

(2) A sac showing winter spores. 
(Washington Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



PLANT DISEASES 165 

with formaldehyde and wheat with hot water to kill the smut 
spores. A different mode of application is illustrated in the 
control of onion smut. In this case a formaldehyde drip 
attached to the seed drill kills the smut spores in the soil im- 
mediately surrounding the seed and thus protects the young 
onion plant from infection. 

A second method is that of spraying the surface of the 
leaves, fruits and branches of the host plants with a fungicidal 
compound such as Bordeaux Mixture or lime sulfur. By this 
means the spray compound forms a protective layer and 
poisons any spores which may ahght on the host as soon as 
these spores begin to germinate. For example, apples are 
sprayed to control scab and other diseases, and potatoes 
are sprayed in the Northeastern States to control late 
blight. 

A third method is that of selecting disease-free seed. This 
is practiced to control corn root-rot, potato diseases, and 
sweet potato diseases. In some cases, as in that of corn 
root-rot, seed testing is an important item, while in other 
cases it is necessary to secure seed from fields or from regions 
where certain diseases are not present. 

A fourth method is that of varying planting dates so that 
crops will escape certain diseases. For example, the earUer 
spring wheat is planted the less will be the loss from wheat 
rust. Another example is the growing of seed beans during 
the hot weather of the fall in Louisiana when the temperature 
is so high that it controls the anthracnose disease. 

A fifth method is that of eradicating other plants, usually 
worthless, which may harbor plant diseases destructive to 
crops. For example, the common barberry serves as host of 
wheat rust and is being generally destroyed for that reason; 
Ukewise the red cedar is the host of apple rust. Certain 



1 66 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

weeds are hosts of fungi that may infect and cause diseases 
of cultivated plants. 

A sixth method is that of sanitation. It is usually accom- 
plished by rotation of crops so that one crop is not exposed to 
infection from the residue of the preceding crop. Rotation 
of crops is important in controlling corn smut, tomato wilt, 
wheat scab, and the root-knot disease which is very severe 
in the South. 

A seventh method of disease control is the use of resistant 
or disease-escaping varieties of plants. The method is based 
upon the fact that some plants are more hardy and less Uable 
to infection than are others. One object of plant breeding is 
to produce plants with a high resistance to disease, and con- 
siderable progress has been made in this direction. The use 
of resistant varieties is especially important where it is im- 
possible to control diseases by the other methods. For 
example, asparagus rust seemed impossible of control until 
resistant varieties were developed. Yellows-resistant cabbage 
is another example. 

Importance of controlling plant diseases. — The total loss 
of cultivated plants in the United States, due to plant diseases, 
has been estimated at $600,000,000 annually. When we re- 
member that there is no kind of plant that may not be 
infected by some disease, these figures are not surprising. 
In the control of plant diseases, as in the control of human 
diseases, preventive measures are the most important. 

The common diseases should be known so well as to be 
recognized easily, so that measures for control may be taken 
in time to prevent much damage. The diseases of the culti- 
vated crops of each state have been studied by members of 
the staff of the State Agricultural Experiment Station and 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The results of these 



PLANT DISEASES 



167 




Studies are usually published in bulletins which furnish de- 
tailed information in regard to particular diseases, that cannot 
be given in a text Hke this. These references, as well as 
those indicated in the appendix, should be used for further 
study and information. Such a study will be worth much 
more if the diseases of the plants which are common on the 
home farm are used as a basis, 
and through such study a 
means of control put into opera- 
tion. 

Common parasitic fungi. — 
Detailed study of most parasitic 
fungi is difficult and requires 
special training. It is possible, 
however, to recognize many com- 
mon plant diseases by noticing 
the effects produced on host 
plants. These effects may be 
regarded as symptoms of disease. 
They are classified according to 
the general appearance of the 
injury, as follows: rot, blight, 
wilt, mildew, leaf- spot, scab, canker, smut, and rust. 

Rot. — The name itself suggests the nature of the injury 
caused by this class of diseases. The fleshy parts of a plant 
are most often affected, although the injury is found on other 
parts of some plants. Examples: 

Bitter rot of the apple. — It appears, at first, on the fruit 
as small, round, rotten spots. Later the spot becomes dry 
and dark colored. The spot increases in diameter, gradually 
involving the entire fruit. The surface becomes wrinkled, 
and, toward the center of the rotten area, small elevations 



Diagram of section of a leaf spot 
of early blight of potato. 

A. Spores. 

B. Withered remains of cells 
of leaf. Note how much this 
portion of the leaf has shrunken. 

(Adapted from Rands: Wis- 
consin Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 



1 68 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

(pustules) bearing spores appear. This disease is most 
noticeable about the time the fruit begins to ripen. 

Brown rot. — This is a common injury of the peach, plum 
and cherry. The fungus attacks the fruit as it approaches 
maturity, first appearing as a round, dark spot and gradually 
extending over the entire fruit. As decay advances small 
bunches of brown threads appear, at first near the center of 
the original spot, and rapidly extend until the whole fruit is 
covered. If the infected fruit remains on the tree it shrivels 
up into what is known as '' mummy fruit," and may hang 
there during the winter. On examination of " mummy fruits " 
some will be found bearing small mushroom-like bodies. 
These bodies bear spores which may start a new infection. 

Black rot. — This rot attacks grapes. It begins as dark 
purple spots which gradually involve the whole grape. Later 
the grape shrivels up and turns black. 

Bacterial soft rot. — This is a very foul smelling, slimy, soft 
rot of the tissues of fleshy vegetables such as cabbage head, 
carrots, turnips, onions, and potatoes in storage. This 
rot may be checked by keeping the temperature low, by 
thoroughly drying all the surfaces before the vegetables are 
put in storage, if necessary, by exposing them to the sun, 
and by avoiding bruises and wounds as much as possible. 

Dry rot of potatoes. — This is the common rot of potatoes 
under ordinary cellar storage conditions. It is caused by a 
fungus which grows well at rather low temperatures but 
which as a rule can not invade the potato except through the 
wounds. Potatoes should be handled as carefully as apples 
if rot is to be avoided. 

Blue mold rot. — This is the common mushy, soft rot of 
apples in storage, and as a rule follows wounds or the diseased 
spots caused by other parasites. 




PLANT DISEASES 169 

Blight. — This name is appHed to diseases which result in 
a rather sudden death of the host plant or portions of it, such as 
leaves or branches. Examples: 

Fire blight. — This is a disease caused by bacteria. Al- 
though bacteria are not true fungi, they are Uke the fungi in 
their food requirements, 
and some cause injuries 
similar to those made by 
parasitic fungi. Fire 
Wight attacks the leaves 
and twigs of apple and 
pear trees, causing them 
to shrivel and blacken as 
if burned. The leaves of ^ t ^ uv i.^ c . . 

Spores of early blight of potato. 

the diseased twigs do not . ^ • . t ^ ^ . : 

^ A. Various stages of development of 

fall as do the leaves of spores. 

healthy twigs. This fact ^- ^^^^^^^ ^P^^^^- (Wisconsin Agri- 
. cultural Experiment Station.) 

makes it possible to 

recognize the bUght in winter. In the spring the diseased 

twigs may be recognized by their dead, black leaves. 

Bean bacterial blight. — This is a destructive disease of the 
bean crop throughout the country. It produces large, brown, 
parchment-like spots on the leaves, small, sunken, water- 
soaked spots on the pods, and in addition may kill the plant 
outright by forming a canker on the stem or by clogging the 
water tubes. 

Late blight of potato. — This is the most destructive disease 
of the potato crop in the Northeastern States. It is character- 
ized by large, dark brown spots on the leaves. These spots 
enlarge rapidly involving the entire leaf surface. The tuber 
is also affected, a dry, brown rot appearing in its outer tissues. 
Late blight is caused by a fungus which spreads rapidly during 



lyo 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 




the cool, wet weather which frequently prevails in the North- 
ern States, and sweeps across whole fields in a very short time. 
Not only does it destroy the foHage and thus reduce the yield 
of tubers, but also causes a dry rot of the outer tissues of the 
tubers and exposes them to infection by the dry rot of pota- 
toes mentioned above. 

Wilt. — The name indicates the character of the injury. 
The roots or parts of the stem are injured, thus cutting off 

the water supply from the leaves 
and upper parts of the plant, caus- 
ing them to wilt. Examples: 

Cabbage yellows. — This is the most 
destructive disease of cabbage in the 
United States. It is caused by a 
soil fungus which invades the roots 
and grows up through the water- 
conducting system of the plant so 
as to make the vegetables worthless 
from the commercial point of view. Sometimes the plants 
wilt, but ordinarily the most striking symptom is the yellow 
discoloration and dropping off of the lower leaves, and the 
failure of the cabbage to develop a marketable head. Yellows- 
resistant varieties of cabbage have been developed. 

Other examples of typical wilt diseases are potato wilt, 
tomato wilt, and watermelon wilt caused by soil fungi, and 
the bacterial wilt of cucumbers and muskmelons which is 
carried from plant to plant by insects. 

Mildew. — There are two entirely different types of mildew 
among plant diseases. One of these types, called powdery 
mildew, in which the mycelium or vegetative part of the 
fungus lies on the surface of the host, has been described 
in a previous paragraph. It is illustrated by such diseases 



Germinating spores of early 
blight of potato. 
(Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



PLANT DISEASES 1 71 

as the common powdery mildew of the Hlacs, the powdery 
mildew of roses, and the mildews on gooseberry and cherry 
foliage. 

The other type of mildew is called downy mildew. This 
type of disease is caused by a fungus which grows within 
the tissues of the host rather than on the surface. It is illus- 
trated by such diseases as the downy mildew of the lettuce 
which is very common in greenhouses, the downy mildew of 
onions, and the downy mildew of grapes. 

Spot diseases. — Many diseases are characterized by the 
formation of definite disease spots on the foliage, fruit, or other 
parts of the host plant. In cases of severe attack these spots 
may become so numerous as to lead to the death of the host, 
while in other cases the effect is not so severe. 

The leaf-spot diseases of beet, cherry, strawberry and to- 
mato are good examples of this class of diseases as they occur 
on foliage. Other examples: 

Apple scab. — In this disease the spots are produced on 
the foliage and fruit making a distinctly scab-like appearance. 
On the fruit the scab first appears as an olive green, circular spot. 
This spot enlarges very slowly and causes damage because 
it disfigures the fruit and exposes it to rot-producing fungi. 

Peach scab. — This disease is characterized by small 
circular spots on the young twigs, and by very small freckle- 
like spots on the fruit which occasionally merge to form rough 
blotches and possibly a cracking of the surface of the fruit. 

Practically all the scab diseases may be controlled by 
spraying. 

Galls. — Some plant diseases result in the formation of 
large overgrowths of the host tissue. Club-root of the cab- 
bage, crown gall of raspberries, fruit trees and other plants, 
and the black wart of the potato are good examples. 



172 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Canker. — Some tree diseases produce large dead areas 
in the bark which enlarge more rapidly than the tree can 
produce callus, and thus eventually girdle the trunk or limb 
to cause the death of the tree. Such cankers are produced by 
the fire-blight diseases of apple, by the Illinois apple-tree 
canker, by the chestnut-blight disease, and by the citrus- 
canker disease. 

Apple canker. — Several diseases cause cankers on apple 
trees. Among the most destructive of these is the Illinois 
canker, the black-rot disease, and fire blight. The apple- 
blotch disease also produces destructive cankers on young 
twigs. Not only are these cankers destructive in themselves, 
but they afford means for the parasites to live over winter. 

Smut. — Smut diseases are so named because of the char- 
acteristic masses of black powdery spores which are produced 
on the host, often in the place of the normal grain which would 
otherwise have been produced. These diseases are most com- 
mon on the cereal crops such as corn, wheat, oats and barley, 
although there is a destructive smut of onions. 

Rusts. — The rust diseases are characterized by the yellow- 
ish or reddish appearance which the small powdery cushions 
of spores give to the surface of the host plant. The most 
destructive rusts are probably those which affect our cereal 
crops such as the black stem rust of wheat or other cereals. 
The leaf rust, also found on cereals, is caused by an entirely 
different fungus from that producing the black stem rust. 
Other examples of destructive rusts are the rusts of the 
apple, of the bean, of the raspberry, and of asparagus. 

The fungi which cause the rusts can live only as parasites 
and do not grow when removed from their special host. This 
is not true of many of the other diseases that have been 
mentioned. 



CHAPTER XVI 

WEEDS 

What weeds are. — Nearly everyone knows that weeds are 
plants which are not wanted. Someone has defined a weed 
as a '' plant out of place." Plants that are sometimes useful 
may be regarded as weeds if they interfere with other plants 
that are desired. Sweet clover is a good example of such 
plants. Under certain circumstances it may be a valuable 
crop for green manure, but at other times it may become a 
pest. 

Losses due to weeds. — " The direct loss in crops, the 
damage to machinery and stock, and the decrease in value of 
land due to weeds, amount, without question, to tens of 
millions of dollars each year — a loss sustained almost wholly 
by the farmers of the nations." 

How weeds interfere with crop production. — An ideal for 
crop production would be to have all the necessary water, 
plant food, and sunshine available for the plants being pro- 
duced. The presence of other plants that make use of these 
things tends to interfere with production by depriving the 
cultivated plants of the amount needed for their best de- 
velopment. For example, the amount of water taken up by 
a vigorous weed amounts to as much or more than is needed 
by a cultivated plant. Some recent experiments, designed 
to determine accurately the effect of weeds on the production 
of corn, showed a loss in the yield of as much as 7,S bushels 
per acre. This merely confirms what can be observed in 
nearly every farming community. 

173 



174 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Besides depriving cultivated plants of water and other 
requirements for their growth, the presence of weeds in hay 
and forage crops reduces their value for feeding purposes. 

Weeds are also responsible for the continuance of many 




Effect of weeds on crop production. Ground plowed, seed 
bed prepared, weeds allowed to grow. Yield, 8 bushels. (Il- 
linois Agricultural Experiment Station.) " 

plant diseases, such as rusts, by acting as host for the fungus 
until the cultivated plants appear. Weeds bear a similar 
relation to insects. 

Why weeds are difficult to control. — Weeds are extremely 
successful in competing with other plants because of several 
characteristics. They are able to withstand adverse con- 



WEEDS 



175 



ditions such as extreme dryness or cold. In the most un- 
favorable situations, such as dry roadsides, they are able to 
grow and produce seed. They are able to produce a great 




Importance of keeping down weeds — another part of 
experiment illustrated on page 174. Ground plowed, seed 
bed prepared, weeds scraped with a hoe. Yield, 39.8 
bushels. 

(Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



many seeds which have a strong vitality. Weed seeds may 
remain dormant for several years but when favorable con- 
ditions occur they germinate and develop into vigorous 
plants. The large number of seeds is an advantage to the 
weed because some of them are Hkely to fall in places where 



176 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

they can develop into plants. A single tumble weed bearing 
115,000 seeds, a square rod of ground in a garden where 
potatoes had grown the year before producing 187,884 weeds 
of eight different kinds, are examples of the great reproductive 
capacity of weeds, 

A little observation together with the application of simple 
arithmetic will demonstrate the significance of the large seed 
production of weeds. For example, an Indian mallow has 
by actual count about 2480 seeds and occupies 315 square 
inches of space. If each of the 2480 seeds should produce a 
plant, there would be that number of plants covering a 
space of 20 square rods the second year. If each of these 
plants produced seeds at the same rate there would be, at 
the end of that season, 6,150,400 seeds. If each of these 
plants produced a plant the third year, the total area occupied 
by them would amount to 309 acres. Fortunately, for many 
reasons, no weed is ever so successful. But the illustration 
points out clearly the immense possibiUties weeds have for 
multiplying their kind. 

Another important contribution to the success of weeds is 
the means they have for the dispersal of their seeds. The 
common weeds not only produce seeds in great numbers, 
but many of them have very effective ways of scattering 
them about. When the seeds are light and provided with 
some means for keeping them suspended, like the seeds of 
the thistle or dandelion, they may be scattered by the wind. 
Or the whole plant may be broken off and driven by the wind 
from place to place, scattering seeds wherever it goes, as in 
the case of the tumble weed. Some weeds have seeds pro- 
vided with barbs which are easily caught in the hair or wool 
of animals, and are thus carried about from place to place, 
as seeds of the burdock, cocklebur, Spanish needle, sticktight, 



WEEDS 



177 



beggar ticks, etc. Some seeds enclosed in the pulp of fruit 
are eaten and dispersed by birds. Examples of such plants 
are the poison ivy, and pokeberry and some of the night- 
shades, such as the ground cherry. Some weeds produce seeds 
that are light and almost impervious to water. During rains 
these seeds are carried about by the water and left at the 
edges of streams or on flooded land after the water has sub- 
sided. Some weed seeds, because of a similarity in size, are 
difficult to separate from the seeds of cultivated plants such 
as clover, timothy, etc., when they are threshed. For this 
reason the weed seeds may be planted along with the seeds 
of the crop to be produced. 

Means of control of weeds. — There seems to be no practi- 
cal way of entirely controlling weeds, but their effect on 
crops may be considerably reduced. 

First in importance is clean culture. This means killing 
the weed seedlings as fast as they appear during the growing 
season. It is possible to do this when some cultivated crop, 
such as corn or potatoes, is produced. In discussing con- 
servation of soil moisture, much emphasis was placed upon 
the need of frequent cultivation so as to maintain a good 
mulch. Indeed, recent experiments in Nebraska, Illinois, 
Ohio, Minnesota, Michigan, and by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture seem to indicate that keeping the soil free from 
weeds is even more important in conserving moisture than 
using soil mulch. In farm practice keeping down weeds and 
making a soil mulch are usually done by the same operation. 
In an ordinary season when the rainfall is well distributed 
and not excessive, maintaining a good mulch will, at the 
same time, effectively control the weeds. In rainy seasons 
especial attention must be given to the removal of weeds. 
Uncultivated crops, such as wheat, should be grown in short 



178 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

rotation with cultivated crops. For example, wheat follow- 
ing corn which has been kept free from weeds will be 
less injured by weeds than if following some uncultivated 
crop. 

Other means of control that may be effective are heavy 
fertilizing to induce a vigorous growth of farm plants so that 
they may compete successfully with weeds; the use of animals 
such as sheep and hogs for control, the latter being especially 
useful in destroying bindweed; pasturing to reduce the growth 
of tall weeds thus permitting the development of pasture 
grasses; spraying with chemicals such as iron sulfate for 
wild mustard and wild onion. 

It is also quite important that the seed of such crops as 
clover, timothy and wheat be free from weed seeds. All 
small seed used on the farm should be carefully examined 
for weed seeds. The purchase of seed badly mixed with 
weed seeds should be avoided. 

When seed is produced on the farm it should be screened, 
several times if necessary, to remove the weed seeds. Many 
of our most troublesome weeds have become established on 
farms by the use of impure seed. For instance, the narrow 
leaf plantain was seldom seen in fields a few years ago, but 
becoming mixed with seed used on farms, it has grown to be 
a common pest. 

All of our common weeds that are difficult to eradicate 
should be so well known that they may easily be recognized 
at any stage of their growth, and measures should be taken 
to destroy them. It is especially important to keep them 
from producing seed. 

In most states the desirabihty of controlKng weeds is 
recognized, and laws providing for their destruction on road- 
sides and in uncultivated areas are enacted. Because of the 



WEEDS 



179 



ease with which weed seeds are carried from one farm to 
another some protection should be given to the careful farmer, 
but there is a great difficulty in enforcing laws. If all the 
farmers in a community would cooperate to exterminate 
weeds by using every means of control at their disposal, weeds 
would interfere much less with crop production. 



CHAPTER XVII 
INSECTS 

The relation of farm practice to insect control. — It is a 

well recognized principle of field-crop pest control that there 
is a definite relation between farm practice and insect control, 
and that in many cases good farm practices alone are sufficient 
to overcome insect troubles. A recognition of the importance 
of insects, and a knowledge of their habits and Hfe history 
and of certain relations existing between insects and their 
plant hosts will enable the farmer to plan intelligently his 
farm practices so as to reduce his insect problems . to a 
minimum. 

Insects both useful and harmful. — Not all insects are 
harmful. For instance, the bumble bee is essential to the 
profitable production of red clover seed and other insects 
are similarly useful in pollenizing certain plants. Other 
insects, such as the honey bee and the silkworm, are useful 
because of some product they make. Others are beneficial 
because of their destruction of insects that are harmful. The 
lady beetle, syrphus fly, lace wing fly, and many kinds of 
parasitic insects are examples of this group of insects. But 
there are many kinds of insects which are injurious because 
they interfere with crop production. 

Extent of harmful insects. — A Httle observation during 
the growing season will lead to the conclusion that there 
are more kinds of harmful insects than useful ones. Each 
kind of plant will be found to be subject to injury by some 
kind of an insect, and many plants by many kinds. Among 
the plants, for example, which have special insect pests are 

1 80 



INSECTS i8l 

the potato — injured by the potato beetle; the cabbage 
plant — injured by the cabbage worm; the apple — coddhng 
moth; wheat — Hessian fly; corn — chinch bug; cottonboU- 
weevil. 

Amount of injury by insects. — The total loss to agri- 
culture in the United States, occasioned by insects, is 
enormous, amounting, according to good authority, at least 
to ten per cent of the total production. Thus in 191 5, the 
wheat crop which amounted to about $1,000,000,000 might 
have been worth $100,000,000 more had it not been reduced 
by insect injuries. 

The constant danger of damage by insects to growing 
crops is well illustrated by a reference to corn. " This crop 
may suffer from insect injuries from the time the seed is 
put into the ground until the meal is ready to use. The 
kernels just planted may be destroyed by wire worms, the 
young plants may die because their roots are eaten by wire 
worms or white grubs, or the juices of the roots may be 
sucked up by corn- root lice. If the plants escape destruction 
by these enemies, the soft stems may be injured by the burrow- 
ing of stalk borers, their leaves and stems pierced by bill 
bugs, or the whole plant cut off by cut worms. Should they 
still survive, the young leaves may be eaten by corn worms 
which may later attack the developing grains in the ears. 
Entire plants may be seriously injured, in May or June, by 
army worms, or a month later by chinch bugs as they come 
in from adjacent wheat and oat fields. When nearly mature, 
plants may fall over because the larger roots have been eaten 
by corn-root worms or cut in two by white grubs, or because 
the brace roots have been weakened by chinch bugs that 
have sucked away the sap. After the corn has been harvested 
and put into the crib, the kernels of the ears may be made 



i82 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

worthless by the larvae of grain moths. Finally, after coming 
from the mill, the meal may be made unwholesome by meal 
worms." Of course, it must be understood that not all of 
these injuries are likely to occur in any one season or to all 
the plants, but some of them are certain to occur. 

Why insects are able to cause so much damage to crops. — 
Insects are generally small and may not be readily noticed ex- 
cept when they occur in great numbers. One may wonder why 
such small animals are able to interfere so greatly with farm 
production. 

There are at least four great facts of insect life that help 
to answer this question. In the first place, there are many 
kinds of insects; second, they reproduce very rapidly; third, 
they grow rapidly; fourth, they are equipped to meet adverse 
conditions. 

Kinds of insects. — ■ The number of kinds of insects ex- 
ceeds the kinds of all other animals put together. It is esti- 
mated that fully 400,000 kinds of insects are now known, 
while perhaps as many more have not been studied and 
described. In the reference just made to corn twelve kinds 
are mentioned. According to good authority as many as 
two hundred different kinds of insects may, at one time or 
another, attack and injure the corn plant. One hundred and 
twenty-six kinds of insects are known to injure the apple 
tree and more than five hundred, the oak tree. 

Rapid reproduction of insects. — Not only are there many 
kinds of insects but many of the same kind. Enormous 
numbers of our common, destructive insects are produced 
each year. A httle figuring will make clear the great repro- 
ductive possibilities of insects. If an insect should produce 
two hundred eggs, and half this number should develop into 
adults which, in turn, should produce the same number of 



INSECTS 183 

eggs per individual, there would be one hundred times two 
hundred, or 20,000 eggs; 10,000 of these might be females 
to begin the second generation. If these females should 
each deposit two hundred eggs, there would be 2,000,000 eggs, 
1,000,000 of which might be egg-laying adults to begin the 
third generation, etc. 

It has been found that a new generation of potato beetles 
occurs once each fifty days during the growing season. The 
possible descendants of one pair of potato beetles have been 
estimated at 60,000,000 for one season. Fortunately no 
kind of insect ever reaches its possibilities of reproduction. 
If it did, the world would soon be so filled with insects that 
there would be no room for other life. As a matter of fact, 
owing to various difficulties such as scarcity of food, diseases, 
insect parasites, birds, etc., the number of insects that get 
a chance to live is very small compared with the number 
that might develop if all conditions were favorable. 

Growth of insects. — Rapidity of growth is perhaps the 
most important fact to be considered in relation to the damage 
done to crops by insects. For instance, some caterpillars 
which reach their growth in thirty days increase in size 
10,000 times. At this rate, an infant weighing eight pounds 
would weigh as a full grown man 80,000 pounds, or forty tons. 

In order to make such a rapid growth, insects must eat 
large quantities of food. It is not uncommon for a cater- 
pillar to eat twice its weight in leaves in one day; often the 
rate of eating is greater than this. For example, one of our 
large caterpillars consumed in fifty-six days one hundred 
and twenty oak leaves, amounting to three-fourths of a pound. 

Insects are able to meet adverse conditions. — Another 
important fact of insect Kfe is that they usually have a way 
of meeting adverse conditions. This bears on the question 



i84 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



of how insects interfere so much with farm production, 
though not so directly as those facts already considered. In 
general, their rapid growth and reproduction are means for 

equipping them to meet un- 
favorable conditions. For ex- 
ample, where a large number 
of a certain kind of insect is 
produced, and conditions be- 
come unfavorable, more of 
them will survive than if the 
number produced were small. 
Rapid growth is also an ad- 
vantage. It enables insects 
to make use of a food supply 
while it is plentiful, and thus 
rapidly pass into a stage dur- 
ing which Httle or no food is 
needed. For example, the 
young of the potato beetle 
eat much and grow rapidly 
for a few weeks, then pass 
into a resting stage, called 
pupa, in which they require 
no food. 

In temperate climates, the 
most serious adverse condition 
which insects must meet is 
the cold of winter; but they 
meet this difficulty so success- 
fully that when spring comes there is enough to begin a new 
season. Insects pass the winter in various ways; some, like 
grasshoppers, survive in the egg stage; others like the cod- 




Life history of the Hessian Fly. 

a. Egg. h. Larva. 

c. Flax seed or pupa case. 

d. Pupa. e. Adult male. 
/. Adult female. 

g. Flaxseed on wheat plant. 

h. Fly depositing eggs on blade of 
wheat plant. 

(Hanman: Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



INSECTS 



i8s 



ling moth, survive as larvae; those hke the cabbage butter- 
fly, as pupae; those like the potato beetle, as adults; others, 
like the corn-root aphids, survive by some special means. 

Insect life and insect control. — Having considered why 
insects are able to cause so much damage to crops, we 
need now to consider some 
facts of insect life which may 
help us to control this dam- 
age. Two facts are espe- 
cially important : first, insects 
pass through definite stages 
of development; second, the 
way in which insects get 
food. Since both have a 
practical bearing upon insect 
control it will be of interest 
to notice each in detail, and 
to illustrate the application 
of this knowledge. 

Life history of insects. — 
Most insects as the cabbage 
butterfly, housefly. May 
beetle, etc., pass through four 
stages in their life-history — 
that is, from egg to adult. 
The first stage is the egg; 
second, larva or active stage; third, pupa or resting stage; 
fourth, adult or mature stage. Some insects, like the grass- 
hopper, make a short cut from egg to adult, omitting the 
larval and pupal stages. The young of such insects are 
much like the adult except in size and development of parts, 
particularly the wings. They are called nymphs. 




Life history of May Beetle. 

a. Adult. b. Egg. 

c. Larva. d. Pupa. 

e. Plant showing grub destrojang 
roots; pupa in burrow. (Hanman: 
Missouri Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 



1 86 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

It is important to know the life history of our common 
insects and also when and where to look for each stage, be- 
cause such knowledge is needed for insect control. If the 
various stages in the life history of an insect are recognized, 
some one stage is likely to be found weaker or more easily 
reached than others. This should indicate what to do in 
order to prevent or reduce the injuries caused by this insect. 
For example, the codling moth lays its eggs on the small 
apples about the time the blossoms fall in the spring. Soon 
the egg hatches, and the larva, a little worm, eats its 
way into the young apple. Later, after the worm and the 
apple have increased in size, the apple falls to the ground. 
Then the worm crawls out of the apple and finally goes up 
the trunk of the tree to hide beneath some scale of bark. 
Here it changes into the pupa and later into a moth, ready 
to start a second generation. There are two points in this 
life history that suggest a means of control. First, the hatch- 
ing period; if a poisonous spray is applied at this time the 
young larva is very likely to be poisoned as it eats its way 
into the young apple; second, the pupa- forming period, in 
mid-summer. At this time the worms crawl up the lower 
part of the tree trunk to find a shelter beneath the bark 
scales. If these scales are scraped off and a band of burlap 
is tied about the tree trunk two or three feet from the ground, 
the worms hunting for shelter will crawl beneath the burlap 
band. After they have collected under the band and formed 
pupae, it may be removed and the pupae destroyed. 

How insects secure food. — It is important to know whether 
a particular kind of insect gets its food by biting or by suck- 
ing. If it gets its food by biting, the application of some 
poison in form of a spray will be effective for control; 
naturally the insect will eat some of the poison when eating 



INSECTS 



187 




the poisoned plant tissue. If the insect gets its food by suck- 
ing, spraying with a poison will not be successful. The 
sucking tube of the insect by means of which it gets its food 
will penetrate the surface of the plant, and little or no poison 
will be taken into the body. Consequently other measures 
must be taken to destroy such insects. If a spray mixture 
is used, it must be one that will cor- 
rode or otherwise injure the bodies 
of the insects, such as the lime-sulfur 
mixture so commonly used to destroy 
scale insects; or one that will cover 
their bodies in such a way as to affect 
the breathing organs, such as the 
kerosene emulsion often used to de- 
stroy plant lice. 

Sucking insects, such as scale in- 
sects, may also be destroyed by 
another method. The infected plant may be covered with 
a tent, and a poisonous gas, such as hydrocyanic acid gas, 
generated beneath it. The gas enters the breathing pores 
of the insects and they soon die. 

What a farmer should know about insects. — The four 
great facts — many kinds of insects, rapid reproduction, 
rapid growth, and a successful means of meeting adverse 
conditions — should be recognized by the farmer in order 
that he may be on his guard and take measures for the control 
of insects. 

The farmer should be famiUar with the life histories of 
the most common injurious insects. At least he should know 
that caterpillars are the larvae of moths and butterflies, 
grubs the larvae of beetles, maggots the larvae of flies, that 
young grasshoppers resemble the adult forms except in size 



San Jose Scale. Several 
adult insects considerably- 
magnified to show details 
of appearance. 



i88 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

and development. He should be able to recognize the prin- 
cipal insects and the injuries caused by them to which his 
crops are liable. He should realize the importance of insect 
control to profitable farming. He should know the effects 
of rotations, arrangement of crops, time of planting, time 
of plowing, and the like on the important crop pests; the 
relation of moisture, climatic conditions, fertility, etc., to 
insect damage; the great importance of timehness in recogniz- 
ing insect troubles, and in taking measures for their control; 
and especially should he understand the value of calUng 
upon his agricultural experiment station for assistance if 
the trouble is unknown to him or if he is not thoroughly 
familiar with he best methods of procedure. 

What the farmer can do to control insect injuries. — The 
control of insects is an important and difhcult task for the 
farmer, but there are many things he can do toward this 
control. It is to his advantage to know such facts of insect 
life as have already been set forth in this chapter. He should 
not only be able to recognize the various kinds of common 
insects but should have an acquaintance with their life- 
histories and habits. For example, if he knows by sight the 
moths of the army worm, and happens to notice that they 
are unusually plentiful in the spring, he will be prepared to 
see large numbers of the young later and perhaps be able to 
destroy them near their hatching grounds before they do 
much damage. 

The following are some of the methods for controlling 
insect injuries: 

Crop rotation. — The kind of rotation practiced may 
affect the kind and amount of insect injury to crops in the 
rotation. For example, as a result of the change from sod 
(grass) to corn, some of the insects, such as the white 



INSECTS 189 

grub, wire worm, and cut worm, which infest sod land may 
remain to injure the corn. Grass furnishes so much food 
that these insects are not usually noticed when the field is 
in grass, but they are numerous enough when the corn plants 
appear to do great damage to corn. This injury may be 
greatly reduced if measures are taken to get rid of the insects 
before planting the corn, that is, by early spring plowing 
and late planting. Another method would be to provide 
a rotation which would avoid using crops hke corn to follow 
grass. Thus oats, clover, and corn would be a better ro- 
tation than oats, grass and corn. 

Arrangement of crops on the farm. — The arrangement of 
crops in the fields has an effect on the control of destructive 
insects. Crops having the same insect enemies should not 
be planted side by side, for certain insects are Hkely to migrate 
from one crop to another. For example, a field of corn beside 
a field of grass might be injured by the army worms which 
come from the grass; but if the corn were next to a wheat 
field it would escape injury from these insects, for army worms 
are rarely found among wheat plants. On the other hand, 
if there were danger of injury from chinch bugs, corn growing 
next to wheat would be especially liable to damage by those 
insects, if they were numerous in the wheat. 

Neither should crops having the same insect enemies 
succeed each other, for insects injurious to one crop are 
Hkely to five over to do damage to the succeeding crop; 
corn following grass, mentioned in a preceding paragraph, 
is an example. Nor should the same crop continue on the 
same ground two or more seasons in succession; the well- 
known occurrence of numerous white grubs and wire worms 
in old meadows and pastures, and of corn-root aphides and 
corn-root worms in fields where corn is grown for several 
years in succession are examples. 



IQO PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Timing farm operations. — The timing of work in the 
field has an effect on insect control. The value of timing 
farm operations is well illustrated by the success of measures 
that are practiced to protect wheat from injury by the Hessian 
fly. If a field in which the Hessian fly has been troublesome 
is to be used for wheat the following year, plowing and rolling 
the ground in summer and late sowing will usually save the 
next crop from much damage by this insect. Plowing and 
rolling destroy most of the insects, and the preparation for 
late sowing destroys the eggs of the flies that have escaped 
destruction in the first operation. A similar practice is 
followed in the control of the wheat jointworm. Where 
spring wheat is to be protected, burning the stubble and 
plowing in the fall, and early spring sowing are regarded 
as efficient measures. It must be understood that the Hessian 
fly and the jointworm are not always controlled by these 
methods. They should be employed, however, where rota- 
tion of crops which is a more effective means of control can 
not be followed. 

Relation of moisture and other climatic conditions to 
insects. — Many insects are greatly influenced by climatic 
conditions, especially by moisture. This fact is worthy of 
consideration in insect control, for if conditions are favorable 
for their growth and development some measures for control 
may be necessary. For example, the greatest damage from 
the chinch bug may be expected during a hot, dry summer; 
and from the Hessian fly during a warm, moist spring or fall. 

Soil fertility and insect control. — Keeping the soil fertile 
is a good practice not only from the standpoint of crop yield 
under normal conditions, but also from the standpoint of 
safeguarding the growing crop from a certain amount of dam- 
age by insects. Vigorously growing, healthy plants are less 



INSECTS 191 

likely to be destroyed by certain insects than those that are 
weak. For example, wheat plants that make an early, vig- 
orous growth, as upon richly fertilized land, are less likely 
to be greatly injured by the jointworm than are weak, slow- 
growing plants. Mineral fertilizers and soil amendments 
such as kainit and lime seem to have a direct effect upon the 
control of certain insects. For example, insects infesting sod 
land may be partially controlled by heavy applications of 
kainit and lime. This treatment, when appHed in the spring, 
has the added advantage of stimulating the growth of the 
grass. 

Community cooperationo Certain insects migrate from 
one farm to another and therefore cooperation among the 
farmers of the community is necessary for the control of 
them. For example, wheat should not be sown early for 
pasture or volunteer wheat allowed to develop in wheat 
fields when the Hessian fly is bad. Such a practice is likely 
to injure the neighboring farmer who is making an effort to 
save his next crop of wheat from the fly. 

Other methods of control. — Clean farming, including 
clean cultivation and the destruction of weeds and rubbish, 
has its influence in keeping insects under control. Corn 
shocks standing over winter may afford means of hibernation 
for chinch bugs; old cabbage stalks and leaves may furnish^ 
protection for the pupae of the cabbage butterfly and the 
cabbage maggot; weeds and other plants along fence rows 
and on other parts of the farm may harbor the Hessian fly, 
the chinch bug, the jointworm and many other insects. 

Some varieties of plants are less liable to insect injuries 
than others. When possible such varieties should be used, 
provided they have other desirable qualities. The phylloxera 
of the grape vine, a plant louse injuring the roots and some- 



192 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

times the leaves of this plant, will not do much if any damage 
to some varieties of the grape. A rapidly maturing variety 
of wheat would be likely to sustain' less damage from the 
jointworm than a slowly maturing variety. 

Natural enemies of insects. — Injurious insects, in spite 
of man's effort to control them, would soon become so numer- 
ous as to make agricultural production very unprofitable were 
it not for their natural enemies. These enemies are bacterial 
and fungal diseases; parasitic insects; birds; and mammals. 

Insect diseases. — Insects like other forms of life are 
subject to disease, and when they have become diseased 
they are unable to cause further injury to growing crops. A 
few examples will illustrate insect diseases. A germ (bac- 
terial) disease of the cabbage worm is not uncommon. In 
the course of the disease the worm ceases to eat and soon 
dies. The dead remains become soft and dark in color, and 
finally decay entirely. In late autumn, house flies may be 
seen attached to walls or window panes by fine threads of a 
mold-like substance. These flies have been attacked by a 
fungus. A similar disease sometimes attacks chinch bugs^ 
destroying them in great numbers. 

Parasitic insects. — An organism living on the body of 
another is called a parasite. The organism invaded by the 
parasite is known as the host. Nearly all insects are subject 
to injury by parasitic insects. The parasite usually lays its 
eggs on the body of the host. The eggs hatch into little 
grubs which enter the body of the attacked insect. Here 
they live until they find their way to the outside and form 
pupae. For example, tomato worms are often seen covered 
with the white oblong cocoons of parasites that have been 
living inside the worms. At this stage the worm is either 
dead or about ready to die. 



INSECTS 193 

Insects which are very numerous one season may be scarcely 
noticed the following season. It is probable that at the end 
of the first season most of them were attacked and killed by 
parasites. Consequently but few were left to start new 
generations the second year. 

Birds. — Birds have been called " the farmer's friends," 
because they greatly aid him in destroying insects that injure 
his crops. The importance of attracting birds to the farm 
and encouraging them to live there is so great that the follow- 
ing chapter will be devoted to this subject. 

Mammals. — The mole and skunk are common mammals 
that are useful in destroying insects, although at times they 
may become undesirable. The mole feeds upon worms, insect 
larvae such as wireworms and white grubs, and insects that 
live in the ground. The skunk eats a great variety of insects 
such as grasshoppers, crickets, white grubs, tobacco and 
tomato worms, and potato beetles. It also feeds upon field 
mice and other small rodents. 

Learning more about insects. — Nothing can take the 
place of actually knowing insects, not from books, but by 
watching what they do, how they grow, where they live, 
when and where they lay their eggs and transform into the 
different stages of their development. 

Such knowledge should grow by continued observation 
from year to year, with such assistance as may be obtained 
from bulletins and circulars, from state agricultural experi- 
ment stations and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
and from some good reference books on injurious insects. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
BIRDS AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE 

Birds rely largely upon weed seeds and insects for their 
food. For this reason they are of inestimable value in help- 
ing to control weeds and in holding insects in check. The 
good they do is not sufficiently appreciated. It will there- 
fore be worth while to consider some of the facts of bird life 
as related to agriculture, showing how birds protect farm 
plants from insect injuries and from weeds to a certain extent. 

Food of adult birds. — Most of our common birds are 
either seed eaters or insect eaters. In certain seasons they 
may eat fruit, but the damage done to cultivated fruits by 
birds is generally offset by the good they do in other ways. 

Birds as destroyers of weed seeds. — We have seen that 
one reason why weeds are able to succeed so well in establish- 
ing themselves is that they produce great quantities of seeds. 
When weed seeds have been produced and scattered, little 
can be done toward control until they have developed into 
seedlings the following season. It is especially difficult to 
destroy seeds which have fallen on the ground. A large 
amount of weed seeds is eaten by birds. The number of 
seeds found in the stomach and crop of a bird, representing 
a single feeding period, gives some idea of the service rendered 
in the destruction of weed seeds. For example, a red-winged 
blackbird was found to have eaten in one feeding period 
1800 seeds of ragweed; a bobwhite, 5000 seeds of pigeon 
grass; and a mourning dove, 9200 seeds of pigeon grass. 

194 



BIRDS AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE 195 

Among the seed-eating birds are sparrows, finches, gros- 
beaks, towhees, meadowlarks, and quail. 

Birds as destroyers of insects. — One reason birds are able 
to destroy enormous numbers of insects is due to their abihty 
to get quickly to places where insects are numerous. It 
may be noticed that an outbreak of grasshoppers is likely to 
be followed by an increase of birds in that locahty. After the 
grasshoppers have been destroyed the birds pass on to some 
other place where insect food is more abundant. In this way 
insects are often kept in check and prevented from doing 
much damage. 

The number of insects that a single adult bird will eat 
at one meal is very great, as the following examples will 
show. A yellow-billed cuckoo is known to have eaten 250 
tent caterpillars; a nighthawk, 500 mosquitoes; another, 
320 grasshoppers; a cedar waxwing, 200 canker worms; and 
a flicker, 28 large grubs. A scarlet tanager was found to 
have eaten 630 gypsy moth caterpillars in 18 minutes, and 
a warbler 3500 plant lice in 40 minutes. Among the birds 
that are largely insect eaters are the warblers, threshers, orioles, 
flycatchers, swallows, woodpeckers, thrushes, nuthatches, 
wrens, kinglets, vireos, creepers, titmice, and chickadees. 

Birds as destroyers of rodents and other mammals. — Field 
mice, deer mice, rats, weasels, rabbits, and some other mam- 
mals are often very destructive of farm plants and farm 
products. With the exception of the rabbit whose numbers 
are usually kept down by hunters, the number of these harmful 
mammals is controlled largely by hawks and owls, and to a 
certain extent by crows. 

The service rendered by many kinds of hawks and owls is 
not sufficiently understood and appreciated. Only two com- 
mon species of hawks, Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned 



196 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

hawk, are known to be hannful. These destroy other birds, 
and when occasion offers, poultry. Such hawks as the red- 
tailed and red-shouldered hawks, often called hen or chicken 
hawks, feed largely upon insects and rodents such as field 
mice. For example, an examination of the contents of the 
stomachs of twelve red-shouldered hawks showed that 102 
mice had been eaten; while only three of 220 stomachs 
examined contained remains of poultry. Occasionally an 
individual hawk may get the poultry-eating habit. Such an 
individual should receive the same consideration as a sheep- 
kilhng dog. As a good protection against a hawk getting a 
taste for poultry, purple martins may be induced by the 
presence of nesting boxes to guard the poultry yard. The 
purple martin does not like the hawk and generally succeeds 
in driving him away. The presence of nesting kingbirds 
serves the same purpose. 

All of our common owls seem to be beneficial, destroying 
enormous numbers of insects and harmful mammals. So 
much cannot be said of the crow. While it destroys many 
mice and other rodents it also destroys young birds, sometimes 
poultry, and often pulls up corn that is germinating in the fields. 

Food of young birds. — Most of our common birds, whether 
seed-eating or insect-eating, feed their young almost ex- 
clusively on insects. Young birds grow rapidly and require 
an abundance of food. Many young birds digest their food 
in less than two hours. A young bird will often consume 
food equal to more than one-half its weight in one day. Three 
young chipping sparrows were kept under observation for 
an entire day and were seen to receive food from their parents 
187 times; a family of young martins, 312 times; and a 
family of wrens, 600 times. 

It happens that the first brood of young birds is produced 



BIRDS AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE 197 

in the spring when insects are beginning to appear. This is 
a time when the destruction of insects gives the greatest 
protection to crops. Many adult insects are killed before 
they lay eggs, thus preventing in advance the damage a new 
generation might do. Again, countless young caterpillars 
and other insect larvae are destroyed before they are large 
enough to do much injury. 

Bird population. — The effect of the decrease in the bird 
population in any agricultural region is shown almost im- 
mediately by the rapid increase of insects. On the other 
hand, injuries threatened by large numbers of insects are 
soon checked by the appearance of birds. 

The importance of maintaining the bird population has 
been recognized in most states by laws protecting song birds 
and their nests. State laws have been greatly strengthened 
lately by national laws, both of the United States and of 
Canada, which are intended to protect birds during their 
migration periods. 

A bird census or survey which was conducted in 19 14 and 
again in 191 5, under the direction of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, indicates that the kinds of birds, as well as 
individuals of each kind, are less numerous on farms than 
they should be for adequate protection against insects. 
These surveys show approximately an average of one pair of 
birds to each acre of farm land, an average much too low for 
the protection of crops. The facts of bird life, as shown by 
many observers in various parts of the country, point to a 
decrease in the bird population ranging from ten to seventy- 
five per cent in thirty states. It is not enough merely to 
protect birds from wanton slaughter. Some measures need 
to be taken to increase the number of birds, especially on 
farms. Among the things which encourage the presence of 



igS 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



birds on farms are trees and shrubs, provisions for nesting 
and control of bird enemies. 

Trees and shrubs. — One of the chief causes of the de- 
crease in bird life on farms has been the destruction of trees 
and underbrush and the clearing of waste places, all of which 
are natural bird haunts. 

These have been, for the most part, necessary changes in 
order to enlarge the area of cultivated 
lands. But with the addition of more 
cultivated crops subject to insect injuries 
there is the need of more birds for pro- 
tecting these crops. On many farms there 
are hillsides and other rough land that 
could be reforested. It is desirable to 
reclaim such regions in order to prevent 
loss of soil by erosion and to make them 
productive. Affording a place for birds to 
Bird house made of j^est and to rear their young is an addi- 

hollow limb of tree. . 

(After Forbush.) tional reason. 

Trees and shrubs around the farm home 
not only serve to beautify the home surroundings but they 
encourage the presence of birds of many kinds. There are 
several native trees and shrubs bearing wild fruits which 
furnish food for birds and, in this way, protect the culti- 
vated fruit in the farm orchards. Birds seem generally to 
prefer wild to cultivated fruits. 

The following wild fruits are regarded as useful in afford- 
ing protection for cultivated varieties: for cherries — red 
mulberry, juneberry, wild red cherry, and red-berried elder; 
for raspberries and blackberries — dewberry, wild goose- 
berry and wild blackberry; for apples and pears — ^ crab- 
apple, chokeberry and cockspur thorn. 




BIRDS AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE 



199 



Nesting sites and food for birds. — In addition to provid- 
ing trees and shrubs as nesting sites for birds, nesting boxes 
placed in sheltered places will generally attract such birds 
as wrens and bluebirds. The practice of feeding birds in 
winter often encourages them to become permanent residents. 
At least a dozen different kinds of birds spend the winter in 
the Northern States. During severe weather, especially 
when the ground is covered with snow, these birds have a 




Nesting sites for birds. Two martin boxes. 



hard time to get enough to eat. Providing food at such times 
would prevent many from starving. 

There are two rather common enemies of song birds that 
should be held in check. One is the English sparrow which 
is found almost everywhere. It generally succeeds in driv- 
ing other birds away, and, as far as is known, does Httle by 
way of compensation. It should be trapped or poisoned 
during the winter. At this time there is the least danger of 
injuring other birds by these methods. A good summary of 



200 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

means of control of the English sparrow may be found in 
Farmers Bulletin 493. Another foe is the domestic cat. It 
is said on good authority that one cat is responsible for the 
destruction of fifty birds in one season. Some cats may not 
be so destructive, but some are more destructive, so that 
fifty is thought to be a reasonable average. The cat has 
been a pet so long that it is hard to believe t;he evidence 
that has accumulated against it. Nevertheless, this evidence 
is too well founded to be disregarded. Much of the damage 
by cats occurs at night or early in the morning. The mother 
bird is caught on her nest, and the young birds before they are 
able to fly or just after they leave the nest. It is doubtful 
if the most careful feeding will prevent a cat from exercising 
its natural instinct to kill. If cats are necessary it has been 
suggested that each one should have a small bell tied to its 
neck to give warning to birds in time to permit their escape. 
Appreciation of birds. — The interest in birds, the enjoy- 
ment of their song and beauty, the recognition of the service 
they render as allies in the conflict with insects and weeds, 
should spread in every farm community, so that birds will 
be encouraged to come there and build their nests and rear 
their young. This service can be given by boys and girls 
who are interested in birds, and who enjoy and appreciate 
them. 



CHAPTER XIX 
WHY RAISE FARM ANIMALS 

Importance of farm animals. — The total number of farm 
animals in the United States for any one year is a good index 
of their importance as a farm product. For the year 191 6 
the values were estimated as follows : 

Horses $2,150,468,000.00 

Cattle 2,306,254,000 . 00 

Sheep 254,348,000 .00 

Swine 571,890,000.00 

Attention has been called to the fact that the demand for 
farm products is fast overtaking their production. This is 
particularly true of meat animals. For example, the number 
of beef cattle in 1900 was 50,083,777, but in 191 6 was only 
39,453,630; while the population had increased from 77,- 
256,630 in 1900 to over 100,000,000 in 1916. 

Aside from the need of farm animals as indicated by demand 
and supply there is another equally important reason for 
their production. It has to do with a system of general 
farming which makes a profitable use of crops and of crop 
residue, and at the same time makes provision for maintaining 
the fertility of the soil. Farm animals are necessary for a 
system of this kind. 

Soil fertility. — Crop farming has been shown to be not 
only less profitable than general farming, but more wasteful 
of soil fertility. Special farming, such as truck gardening, 

201 



202 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

orcharding and the like, requiring special knowledge and 
experience, has its place, but the market demand for such 
products may be supplied by relatively few farmers. The 
large majority of farms must be devoted to general farming. 
The manure produced on such farms, if properly cared for 
and appHed to the soil, is of considerable importance. 

Its value for keeping up the fertility of the soil has been 
discussed in detail in Chapter IV. When balanced with a 
phosphate of some kind, manure makes the best fertilizer. 
Besides it furnishes organic matter which is essential for 
maintaining a favorable soil structure, and for increasing the 
water capacity of the soil. 

Disposal of crops. — The production of stock on the farm 
affords a ready means for disposing of various crops. This 
does not mean that no crops are to be sold for cash, but if all 
crops are sold there is a difficulty in keeping up soil fertility 
and a loss in crop residue that cannot be sold. On the other 
hand, if too much stock is kept some feed must be bought, 
often at a higher price than it can be produced on the farm. 
Extremes in either direction should be avoided. The most 
profitable kind of farming is usually one that combines Kve- 
stock and cash crops. 

Crop residue. — There is always a crop residue such as 
stubble, corn stalks, and low-grade hay. There may be waste 
land which cannot be cultivated but which may furnish 
pasture. All this may be utilized in feeding some farm animals. 
Such feeding material becomes a source of profit instead of 
waste. 

Labor. — The keeping of farm animals permits a good 
distribution of labor throughout the year. Where crops only 
are produced, a considerable portion of the farmer's time 
during the year is unemployed. The feeding and care of 



WHY RAISE FARM ANIMALS 203 

live-stock requires most attention during a period when little 
work is needed for crop production. Animal production, 
therefore, fills a gap in labor employment. It makes possible 
a turning to profit of time which might otherwise be wasted. 
Furthermore, much of the care necessary for farm animals 
during the cropping season is given during mornings and 
evenings, thus allowing time for a good day's work. For 
these reasons live-stock may be said to be produced on cheap 
time. 

System of farming. — If the balance between crops and 
animals is properly maintained in a well-planned system, such 
a system of farming is well adapted to the average farm. In 
this connection should be mentioned a kind of specialized 
farming — the raising of farm animals of a particular breed. 
Farms of this kind, in a limited number, are not only quite 
profitable when well managed, but are also an important 
source for supplying pure-bred animals for use on farms de- 
voted to general farming. On such farms crop raising may 
be a secondary matter. In our discussion of farm animals 
their relation to general farming only will be considered. 

Relation between production of crops and farm animals. 
— The advantage of establishing a cropping system for 
maintaining soil fertility and for control of weeds, plant 
diseases and insects has been shown in previous chapters. 

A system of this kind is necessary for permanent agri- 
culture. When farm animals are raised, a cropping system 
must be followed which will not only include these two 
provisions but a third also — one to meet the food require- 
ments of animals. Fortunately this simphfies the problem 
of planning a system of farming, for, as has already been 
emphasized, animal wastes furnish an important means of 
maintaining the fertihty of the soil. In general, farm animals 



204 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

require a certain feeding balance which can be provided on 
the average farm. 

We have seen why the production of farm animals is of 
great importance in supplying the needs of the Nation; and 
how it affords a good means of maintaining the fertility of 
the soil, of disposing of the farm crops, of utilizing crop residue, 
of employing farm labor to good advantage, and of making 
possible a system of farming which is generally profitable. 
We will next consider some of the main facts concerning the 
production of farm animals. 



CHAPTER XX 
HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 

How farm animals are secured. — ^ There are two ways 
in general practice of securing animals for the farm. One 
is by purchase, the other by raising them. 

Many farmers do not attempt to raise their own stock, 
but buy it instead, especially beef cattle and, to a certain 
extent, sheep and hogs. Beef cattle bought as " feeders " 
illustrates this practice. The " feeders " are generally too 
much lacking in weight and finish for sale to packers. Their 
cost is considerably less per hundred pounds than the cost 
of cattle in a finished condition. The feeder, therefore, has 
two possible sources of profit: the gain in price per hundred 
between cost and selling price; and the gain in weight taken 
on by the animals during the feeding period. For example, 
if cattle weighing 900 pounds are bought at $11 per 
hundred and sold at a weight of 1300 pounds at $16 per 
hundred, for each animal there will be a gain of $109. 
Part of this profit, $45, represents the difference between 
the buying and selling price. This difference is sometimes 
called the spread or margin. The rest of the profit comes 
from the 400 pounds gain made by the animals. This amounts 
to $64. 

Importance of well-bred animals. — The same principles 
apply to the production of animals on the farm as to the 
production of high-yielding farm plants. Improved animals, 
or those that are well bred, are always more desirable than 

205 



2o6 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

scrubs or inferior animals. They are more profitable whether 
produced for meat, milk, or labor than those of inferior breed- 
ing. The advantage of good breeding is illustrated by the 
following example. A herd of twenty-seven dairy cows 
produced in one year an average for each of 3737 quarts of 
milk. This herd had been gradually improved and developed 
from animals that were about the average for the county 
in which the farm was located. The county average was low 
as indicated by the estimated yield which was annually 
but 1989 quarts per cow. Estimating the milk at four cents 
per quart, the gross income produced by the average cow 
of the county was $79.56, while that of the average of the 
improved herd was $149.48 — a difference of $69.92 in favor 
of the latter. This is not an unusual incident. In almost 
any locality a comparison of the milk production of the 
average cows with that of improved stock will show a similar 
difference. 

Feeding farm animals. — Success in live-stock production 
depends quite as much upon proper feeding as upon the 
selection of good animals. Indeed, well-bred animals re- 
spond better to careful feeding than those of inferior breeding. 

Reference was made in a previous chapter to a feeding 
balance. Such a balance includes rough feed such as hay or 
pasture; concentrates which have a large starch content, 
such as corn; and protein feeds such as that furnished by 
clover and alfalfa. It happens that a crop rotation which 
will fulfill the first two requirements of a cropping system, 
mentioned in the chapter on Crop Production, will also meet 
the needs of farm animals. For example, a wheat-clover- 
corn rotation tends to maintain soil fertility through the 
clover, to secure freedom from weeds through the cultivation 
of corn, and to control plant diseases and insects through 



HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 207 

a yearly alternation of crops on the same field. But at the 
same time this rotation furnishes roughage in the form of 
wheat straw and corn stover, concentrates in the form of 
corn grain, and protein and roughage in the form of clover. 
The rotation may be varied somewhat by using oats and 
timothy on small areas to take care of the special needs of 
work horses. In some such way the farm may be made to 
attain a high efficiency in production both of crops and 
farm animals, and at the same time may maintain this ef- 
ficiency by keeping up the fertility of the soil. 

Principles of feeding farm animals. — In order to secure 
the best results in the feeding of farm animals and also to 
furnish a variety of feeding material in sufficient quantities, 
it is necessary to follow certain principles of stock feeding 
estabhshed by experience and scientific study. 

All farm animals need feed for two purposes; to supply 
energy, and to supply material for growth or for replacing 
parts of used-up tissues. The combination of feed materials 
used by an animal is called a ration, which also refers to 
the amount of feed used in one day. If the ration is just 
enough to keep the animal alive and healthy it is called a 
maintenance ration. But if, in addition to the amount needed 
for maintenance, it suppKes a surplus for producing fat in 
hogs, milk in dairy cattle, or labor in horses, it is known as 
a productive ration. 

A ration which meets the needs of an animal must contain 
three substances: protein, carbohydrates, and fats. Protein 
is a name given to a class of substances such as white of egg, 
lean of meat, gluten of flour, etc. Carbohydrate refers to 
starch, sugar, and cellulose; and fats to oily substances such 
as tallow, lard, butter, and to the oil of seeds, such as cotton 
seed, corn, etc. 



2o8 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Carbohydrates serve the same purpose as fats; both are 
energy-producing feeds. But a given amount of fat produces 
about two and one-fourth times as much energy as the same 
amount of carbohydrates. In order to simphfy calculations 
in the study of rations, it is customary to reduce fats to their 
carbohydrate equivalent, by multiplying the amount of 
digestible fat by two and one-fourth. The product obtained 
is added to the amount of carbohydrates, and the sum will 
give the total energy-producing material in terms of carbo- 
hydrates. 

With these definitions in mind we will pass to their appli- 
cation. Two things should be taken into consideration: the 
composition of feeding-stuff, and the rations, called standard 
rations, that have been proved by experience and scientific 
investigation to be the most satisfactory for the various 
classes of farm animals. The problem is to secure for a 
particular animal a combination of feed material that will 
as nearly as possible fulfill the requirement of the standard 
ration. Such a combination should take into consideration 
the composition of the various substances used by animals 
as feed. All kinds of feeding material have been carefully 
analyzed and the results placed in tables for reference. In 
the appendix of this book is a table compiled from such 
sources, giving the composition of many common feeds. 

Standard rations. — A standard ration is a certain com- 
bination of feeds adapted to a particular class of animals. 
Each standard ration has been developed through many 
years of experience in feeding farm animals, and through a 
study of experiments designed to show the effects of various 
combinations of feeds on different farm animals. 

While the standard rations are by no means perfect, they 
furnish the best guide now available for intelligent feeding. 



HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 



209 



Sometimes the combination in the ration is expressed by 
merely indicating the ratio between the amount of protein 
and total carbohydrates (the latter including fats reduced to 
terms of carbohydrates). Such ratios are called nutritive 
ratios. They are expressed in this way: The first figure is 
always i ; the second is the quotient obtained by dividing 
the total amount of carbohydrates by the amount of protein. 



DEC. JAN. 

9 16 23 30 6 13 20 27 3 



FEB. 

10 17 24 2 



MAR. 

9 16 23 30 



APR. 



LgU 



isa 



2_\^LEUJA 



3E^ 



£/LEL 



BIlAf 



13 
LBS. 
PER 
WK. 
220 
210 
200 
190 
180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
UlOO 



Graph showing returns from cattle and hogs per 
$100 worth of feed used on farms of various sizes. 

Cattle. Hogs. 

(Figures from Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Thus if the ration contains three pounds of protein and 
twenty-one pounds of carbohydrates, the nutritive ratio is 

1:7. 

Although the nutritive ratio shows the desirable proportion 
between protein and carbohydrates, it does not indicate the 
amounts of each. A standard ration obviates this difficulty 
by giving the estimated amount of protein and of carbo- 
hydrates needed for each looo pounds of animal weight. 
Some of the standard rations will be found in the appendix. 



2IO PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Standardizing a ration. — A ration is standardized by com- 
paring it with the standard for the class of animals to be 
fed, and then correcting it to make it conform to the standard. 
The ration to be corrected is called the trial ration. The trial 
ration may be one in actual use or may be a mere guess as 
to the probable needs of the animal for which it is intended. 
The following steps are necessary in standardizing a ration: 
First, by means of a table giving the composition of digestible 
feeds, determine the total dry matter, protein and carbo- 
hydrates in the trial ration; second, find the difference be- 
tween each item of the trial ration and the corresponding item 
of the standard ration; then correct the trial ration to corre- 
spond closely, but not necessarily exactly, with the standard. 
An example will show how these steps are actually made in 
standardizing a ration. 

A standard ration for cattle, per looo pounds live weight, 
first period, contains these nutrients: protein, 2.5 pounds; 
carbohydrates and fats, 16.1 pounds. 

Suppose a ration of 20 pounds of red clover hay and 10 
pounds of dent corn is being fed to a 1 200-pound steer. Con- 
sidering this as a trial ration the nutrients as determined from 
a table of digestible nutrients will be as follows: 

Carbohydrates and 
Trial Ration Protein {pounds) Fats {pounds) 

20 lbs. clover hay 1.42 ^.3 

10 lbs. dent corn .75 7-24 

2.17 1554 
Standard ration for 1200-pound 

steer 3 . 00 18 .60 

Difference .?>2, 2>-^^ 

The difference shows the deficiency in protein to be rela- 
tively greater than in carbohydrates. Therefore the correction 



HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 211 

should be made by adding feeds having a narrow nutritive 
ratio (one having a large proportion of protein), such as 
clover hay and a small amount of cotton-seed meal. 

Corrected Ration Protein Carbohydrates and fats 

25 lbs. clover hay 1.78 10 . 5 

10 lbs. dent corn 75 7 . 24 

I lb. cotton-seed meal .40 • 40 

2.93 18.14 

Standard 3 . 00 18 . 60 

Difference 07 .46 

The corrected ration conforms to the standard more closely 
than is really necessary in actual feeding practice. 

In standardizing rations it is desirable also to pay some 
attention to the money value of the feeds used. Often an 
inexpensive feed which has the same feeding value as an 
expensive one may be used. Again, preference should be 
given to feeds grown on the farm, if they can be produced 
more cheaply than they can be bought. Here it is a question 
of deciding which is cheaper, home-grown or purchased feeds. 
For example, one farmer found that he could get the best 
return from his land and labor by raising potatoes and selling 
them, and then buying grain for feeding purposes. Making 
correct decisions in such matters is an important factor in 
successful farming. There are many things to take into 
consideration; conditions will vary in different locahties and 
even on different farms in the same community. It happened 
that the farm just referred to was well adapted for potato 
growing and situated near a good market. Perhaps other 
farms in the same region were not so well suited for potato 
production and could not make such a system profitable. 

Preparing and compounding a ration. — After the ration 
has been standardized it is an easy matter to prepare it. 



1212 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

A ration will always contain two parts, a bulky one, called 
roughage (hay is an example), another much less bulky, 
called concentrates (grain is an example). The roughage 
should be weighed separately so as to indicate the bulk neces- 
sary for one day's feed for one animal. After a Httle experience 
it is possible to guess closely enough to the required bulk of 
roughage without weighing it. The designated amounts of 
concentrates are weighed out in sufficient quantities to feed 
all the animals for one week, or perhaps a month, and mixed; 
the amount to be used for one day's feeding of one animal 
is then weighed from the mixture. Afterward the daily 
portion of concentrates may be guessed at with sufficient 
accuracy for practical purposes. The daily portions of 
both roughage and concentrates should be weighed from 
time to time in order to be sure that they are sufficiently 
accurate. 

The standard is meant for an average animal of its class, 
but individuals vary somewhat in their feeding requirements. 
For this reason each animal should be watched closely, as 
it may be necessary to increase the ration for some and to 
reduce it for others. The greatest value found in standardiz- 
ing rations is that it secures the right proportion of feed 
ingredients and forms a basis for feeding that will require 
least modification to meet the requirements of individual 
animals; but nothing can take the place of experience in 
feeding if results are checked by intelKgent observation. 

Care of farm animals. — In addition to having a sufficient 
amount of the right kind of feed, properly balanced, animals 
should also have good care; this includes regular feeding, 
access to plenty of water, salting, shelter for protection against 
cold and wet weather, and kindness in handling them. A 
careful observation of these demands is not only a humane 



HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 213 

obligation toward dependent creatures, but may prove a 
source of profit as well. 

Farm animals are more sensitive to irregular feeding 
periods than human beings. Regular feeding is important 
where it is a question of making an animal produce most 
efficiently and profitably, and not merely one of keeping 
it alive, as in '' roughing " calves through the winter. 

Water must be provided with the same regularity as feed. 
It is better to supply water so that animals may drink as 
much and as often as they desire. 

Salt seems to be necessary to maintain the health of live 
stock. It is especially important for cattle and sheep. Salt 
should be given at regular intervals not too far apart. Some 
dairy farmers add a little salt to each daily ration. 

Animals need fresh air but they should not be exposed to 
cold and wet. The comfort of the animal is not the only 
consideration. The heat necessary to keep the body warm 
and to evaporate cold rain or sleet from the body surface 
is generated by the feed eaten by the animal; therefore, the 
more the animal is exposed the more feed it will need. Conse- 
quently it is economic as well as humane to give farm animals 
shelter adequate for protection from bad weather. I 

It should be the rule to be kind and gentle in the treat- 
ment of farm animals. Such treatment is not only of benefit 
to the animals themselves but reacts also upon the person 
handling them. 

Improving animals. — A reference was made in the first 
part of this chapter to the advantage of securing well-bred 
animals over using those of inferior breeding. In farm practice 
the method most used for improving live stock is known as 
grading. Grading is based upon selection, and by means of 
it an inferior group of animals may gradually be replaced by 



214 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

"better ones. If both parents are inferior, the offspring will 
tend to inherit the inferior quahties of both parents. But 
if one parent is superior, some of the superior quahties will 
be inherited by the offspring. A stock breeder — one whose 
business is to produce pure-bred animals — ■ will see that 
both parents are superior, but such a method requires too 
much capital to be followed by the average farmer. 

The average or general farmer can, however, afford to 
purchase from a reliable stock breeder a pure-bred sire; or 
several farmers may jointly purchase one. In this way may 
be secured one superior parent for the animals produced on 
the farm. The first generation of offspring will be better 
than the average of the original herd, and each succeeding 
generation will continue to be an improvement over the one 
before. As fast as the improved animals appear they may 
take the place of the inferior ones, which may be disposed of. 
In this way any group of farm animals, such as a herd of 
dairy cattle, swine, or sheep, may be graded up in a few years 
from inferior to superior animals. 

Planning a cropping system for animal production. — The 
importance of a definite system of farming has been empha- 
sized many times in one way or another. It is not an easy 
matter to plan and carry out such a system but it is essential 
for the greatest success. If we apply all that has already 
been presented in the discussion of the soil, crops, and feed- 
ing of animals, we find three things that seem essential in a 
plan for general farming: first, maintaining the fertihty of 
the soil and improving soil conditions; second, producing as 
much of the necessary feed for animals as possible; third, 
providing some profitable cash crop, if soil and climatic 
conditions and facihties for marketing warrant. The princi- 
ples which furnish a guide to the first have been presented 



HOW TO PRODUCE FARM ANIMALS 215 

in Chapters II-VI. Some of the main facts concerning 
various crops that should be considered in selecting the ones 
for best production are given in Chapters VII-XI. The 
advantages of live-stock production in a system of farming 
and the general principles of such production have been 
considered in this chapter and in the preceding one. A 
fourth item in planning — • the choice of animals that are 
to be included in the system — • remains to be presented. In 
order to make an intelligent choice something should be 
known of the influence of various factors, such as size of the 
farm, markets, etc., upon the selection of the kinds of farm 
animals. 



CHAPTER XXI 

KIND OF FARM ANIMALS TO KEEP 

The choice of animals to keep on the farm depends upon 
several factors. There is no good reason to believe that one 
kind is always more profitable than another. One farmer 
may conclude that dairy cattle yield the greatest profit, 
while his neighbor may be equally sure that hogs are most 
profitable. Perhaps both may be right, for each man may 
know how to manage the animals of his own choice better 
than any other. So the first factor in determining a choice 
of Kve-stock is the personal preference of the farmer himself. 
The choice may be further influenced by the size of the farm, 
market facilities, lay of the land, and available capital. 

Personal preference. — Likes and dislikes must be taken 
into consideration, for they are often based upon some past 
experience that may favor or hinder success. A farmer who 
dislikes sheep is not likely to succeed as well in raising them 
as another who is more interested in them. In some instances, 
no doubt, large profits may tend to change a farmer's attitude 
toward a particular kind of animal. 

Size of farm. — As a rule small animals and small farms 
go together. A farm of forty acres or less would not be 
adapted to raising dairy or beef cattle, for it would not produce 
enough rough feed and pasture. But it might do very well 
for poultry, hogs, or even sheep. Large farms, on the other 
hand, are well adapted to raising beef cattle or horses, as 

216 



KIND OF FARM ANIMALS TO KEEP 



217 



well as hogs and sheep. All the necessary feed may be pro- 
duced on such farms, and the cost of keeping the stock may 
be much reduced by allowing the animals to have access to 
pastures and rough feed. A survey of a number of Missouri 
farms showed that on farms of 40 acres or less, the return 
for one hundred dollars worth of feed used was $94 from 
cattle, and $172 from 
hogs; but on farms of 121- 
200 acres, the return from 
cattle was $115, and from 
hogs $174. This seems 
to confirm the rule of 
small animals for small 
farms. 

The relation of the size 
of the farm to the num- 
ber and kind of farm 
animals is indicated in 
the following estimate 
giving the average num- 
ber of acres necessary to 
support one animal: 
Horse, 3-5 acres; cattle. 



CattU 



RO (ZI-ZOO 201-4 



Graph showing return from cattle and 
hogs. 



per head, 3 acres; hog, i acre; sheep, J acre. These figures 
are estimates only, but are sufficiently reliable to indicate 
approximately whether a farm is over- or under-stocked. 

Markets. — The distance from market and the character of 
shipping facilities are of importance in making a choice of 
farm animals. A short distance to market is favorable for 
the shipment of all kinds of live-stock; a long distance en- 
tails shrinkage in weight and hability of loss by accident. 
Cattle and sheep stand long-distance shipping better than 



2i8 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

hogs. Wool may be shipped any distance without much, if 
any, loss. This fact accounts, in part at least, for the pro- 
duction of sheep in several of the western states where the 
shipping points are remote from market. Milk and cream, 
being perishable products, must be marketed at frequent 
intervals. Dairy animals would not be a wise selection for 
farms remote from markets or shipping points. 

Lay of the land. — The way the land lies — whether hilly 
or level — may determine the kind of live-stock best suited 
to a farm. Rough land can be used for pasture, while only 
level land can be cultivated. Sheep and beef cattle would do 
well on a hilly farm, if there were enough level land to furnish 
grain and hay for winter feeding. Low, wet land is not 
suitable for sheep raising, because such locations increase the 
danger of foot-rot and other diseases. High, dry ground, 
with plenty of pasture, is necessary for success in producing 
sheep. Hogs could not be used to advantage on hill land, 
because the pastures could not be utilized sufficiently. Dairy 
stock would not be likely to be profitable in a very hilly 
region, because of the difficulties in transportation of the 
products. 

Capital. — There are two things that must be noticed in 
considering the relation of capital to the kind of farm animals 
to be produced: the cost or value of the individual animals; 
and the length of time that must elapse before the animals 
are ready for market. If the capital is limited, animals of 
low cost, such as sheep, hogs or poultry, should be selected; 
if a regular income is needed, dairy animals would yield 
products ready for sale each day. Sheep require from four 
to six months to bring in a return; hogs, six to eight months; 
beef cattle, six to ten months if bought as feeders, and one 
to two years if raised on the farm; horses, three years. 



KIND OF FARM ANIMALS TO KEEP 



219 



The lack of capital is one of the greatest drawbacks to 
keeping farms well stocked; local banks help solve the problem 
by lending money to farmers. The Federal Farm Loan Act 
(passed in 191 6) is intended to furnish farmers with sufficient 
capital to enable them to extend their farm operations. 

Types and breeds of farm animals. — So far our study of 
farm animals has been an attempt to answer three questions: 
Why keep them? How produce them? What kinds to keep? 
We need next to consider some of the main facts concerning 
the production of the great classes of farm animals. Each of 
the next six chapters will be devoted to particular problems 
concerning the production of one of these classes. 



CHAPTER XXII 
PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 

Factors that must be considered in deciding whether or 
not beef cattle should be produced on a particular farm are 
the prospects for a continued favorable market, sufficient 
capital, and the character of the farm itself. 

Market demands. — There are several reasons for the 
belief that the demand for beef cattle will continue to be as 
great as, or even greater than, at the outbreak of the Great 
War. The outlook, as it appeared in 1914, has been summed 
up by Professors Mumford and Hall, of the University of 
Illinois, as follows: ''The undeveloped state of cattle pro- 
duction in proportion to the population and the area of the 
United States, as compared with the condition of the indus- 
try in older countries, justifies the expectation of an ultimate 
extension and development of cattle raising in this country. 
The rapid increase of population and the slower rate of in- 
crease in number of cattle have rendered the export trade a 
relatively insignificant factor; but with a large domestic 
demand in proportion to the supply and limited competition 
from abroad, the industry should be practically independent 
of foreign trade. General market conditions are now and 
promise to remain favorable to the producer, for he has a 
domestic market as a regular outlet and a foreign market as 
an influential regulator of prices and as an elastic consumer 
of surplus." 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 



221 



Capital. — Beef production requires a considerable invest- 
ment of capital. Not only is the initial investment relatively 
large, but it is some time before a return may be expected — 
not until the cattle are sold. This time may cover a period 
of from one to two 
years if the cattle 
are to be raised on 
the farm, or from six 
to ten months if 
feeders are used. In 
many places farmers 
are able to secure 
financial assistance 
from local banks. 
The Federal Loan Act already referred to is intended to 
aid farmers in financing such enterprises as beef production. 

Farm conditions favorable to beef production. — When beef 




Diagram of beef animal showing position of 
various cuts of beef. 




Diagram of side of beef showing wholesale cuts. 
(Illinois Agricultural Experimental Station.) 

cattle are raised on the farm the animals must be kept for a 
long period. For this reason low-priced land and low-priced 
feed are important factors in securing the greatest profit. 
The wide use of the western ranges for raising cattle is an 
appHcation of this principle, and much of the broken land of 



222 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

the east also fulfills these two conditions. In addition, if the 
cattle raised on the farm are to be finished for market, suf- 
ficient grain must be provided for this purpose. Some farmers 
raise their cattle on low-priced land and finish them for the 
market on grain and hay produced on the level and more 
valuable parts of the farm. 

If feeders are employed in beef production, grain and rough- 
age both must be supplied, and good farm land is necessary 
to furnish them. Many farmers of the Corn Belt, who own 
high-priced land, convert their products into beef by using 
feeders. 

Raising beef cattle on the farm. — Among the points that 
should receive consideration are the kind to raise, develop- 
ment of the herd, feed-lots and buildings, feeding and manage- 
ment, and marketing. 

Kind of cattle to raise. — Cattle are of two types, beef and 
dairy. A third type, known as dual purpose, is sometimes 
included. The latter is really a beef type, however, which 
has been developed for milk production. To attain success 
in raising beef cattle it is important to study types carefully. 

Characteristics of beef cattle. — Certain parts of a beef 
carcass are more valuable for meat than others. The loin, 
rib, and round cuts constitute about one-half the weight of a 
carcass and possess more than three-fourths of the market 
value. Buyers of beef cattle desire animals with these parts 
highly developed. A study of figures showing wholesale cuts, 
and positions of these parts on a live animal, should be made 
in connection with the following table giving the wholesale 
prices of cuts. It will be seen from such a study that a beef 
animal should possess a good development of the loin, rib 
and round and a minimum development of shank and 
neck. 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 



223 



Average Wholesale Prices of Cuts of Beef as 
February, 192 i 


Quoted for 


Cut 


No. of lbs. 

(average per 

side) 


Price per 
pound 


Total price 
per cut 


Round 


90 
80 
10 
40 
120 
20 
10 

370 


$0.19 
.36 
.10 
.24 
.12 
.14 
.07 


$17.10 


Loin 


28.80 


Flank 


1. 00 


Ribs 


9.60 


Chuck . 


14.40 


Plate 


2.80 


Front shank . 


.70 




$74 40 



Quality. — The quality of beef, including tenderness, 
flavor, and cooking value, is largely determined by the dis- 
tribution of fat. An even distribution of fat which gives the 
cut a marbled appearance is regarded as evidence of good 




Loin cuts from steers of different market grades. 

A. Common. B. Medium. C. Good. D. Choice. 
(Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

quality. The cuts represented in the figures of the text 
illustrate well and poorly marbled beef. 

Dressing percentage. — The proportion between the weight 
of the carcass and the live weight of an animal, expressed in 
percentage, is called dressing percentage. For example, a 
steer with a live weight of 11 00 pounds, producing. a dressed 
carcass of 660 pounds, would have a dressing percentage of 



2 24 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

60. The remaining 40 per cent would represent wastes, such 
as skin, feet, head, internal organs, loose fat, contents of 
stomach and intestines, etc., which are of little value com- 
pared with meat. 

Dressing percentage is partly determined by the condition 
and partly by the conformation of an animal. One in good 
condition will have a higher percentage than one in poor 
condition; one having a blocky conformation, a higher 
percentage than one with an angular, paunchy conformation. 




Loin cut of prime steer showing well marbled 

appearance of the meat. 

(Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

A beef animal in good condition should have a dressing 
percentage of 60 or more. 

Economical gains. — The three characteristics just dis- 
cussed are important from a buyer's standpoint. Animals 
having good distribution of flesh, indications of quahty, and 
a high dressing percentage always command a higher selling 
price than those which do not possess such points. The 
farmer is interested not only in producing animals that will 
sell well, but that will also take on weight and condition for 
market with the lowest possible consumption of feed. This 
object is secured in part by intelligent feeding, but largely 
by a choice of animals capable of making gains with low 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 



225 



feed requirements. It happens that animals desirable from 
the standpoint of market demands for beef are, as a rule, 
able to make rapid and economical gains. 

Conformation of beef cattle. — Experience has shown that 
a certain type of animal, known as the beef type, combines 
to a great degree the four desirable traits already described. 
The chief points that distinguish this type are as follows: 
The body is short and deep with top and underhnes parallel; 
neck, short and thick; legs, short; ribs well arched and ex- 
tending back toward the points of hips; thighs, full and deep; 





>\ 



tv 




Three aspects of a beef animal showing rectangular conformation. 

A. As seen from front. 

B. As seen from behind. 

C. As seen from the side. 

shoulders and hips, smooth; skin, mellow and pliable; head, 
long and broad, with large muzzle and clear prominent eyes. 
A score card for judging beef cattle will indicate the various 
points in greater detail. 

Breeds of beef cattle. — The specifications of the beef type 
just described will be met by a good representative of any 
of the common breeds of beef cattle. Although there is no 
one breed that can be regarded as best under all conditions, 
it will be worth while to consider somewhat in detail the 
leading characteristics of the four most important breeds: 
Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus and Galloway. 



226 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Shorthorn. — A typical Shorthorn has width and depth of 
form and a generally symmetrical development. The head is 
wide between the eyes, but short from eyes to muzzle, the 
horns are short, curve forward gracefully and, in color, are 
waxy white with dark tips. The color of the Shorthorn 
varies from pure red to pure white. These colors are 
frequently mixed, producing a roan. Red, white, and roan 




An example of the Shorthorn breed of beef cattle. Ohio Sultan. 
(Plumb, Ohio State Agricultural College.) 

may be regarded as the distinguishing colors of the Shorthorn. 

The hindquarters are especially well developed — the best 
of any breed. The forequarter, on the other hand, is some- 
times lacking in development. 

Animals of the Shorthorn breed have a great capacity for 
the production of flesh, but come to full maturity later than 
other breeds. They are good feeders and are able to adapt 
themselves to a variety of conditions of climate and feed. 
They have a high rank among beef breeds, as milk producers. 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 



227 



Certain strains have been developed for the double purpose 
of milk and beef production. 

The Shorthorn breed has been used more than any other 
in grading or improving common cattle. Shorthorn blood is 
usually much more in evidence in cattle markets than that 
of any other breed. 

The hornless or polled Shorthorn, except for lack of horns, 




An example of the Hereford breed of beef cattle. A Hereford steer, 
one-time champion of Ohio. (Plumb, Ohio State Agricultural College.) 

is like others of its breed. It is generally known as the Polled 
Shorthorn. 

Hereford. — The general conformation of the body of the 
Hereford is similar to that of the Shorthorn, except that it has 
a greater degree of smoothness of the shoulders and a better 
development of the loin region. The horns are whitish yellow, 
somewhat longer than those of the Shorthorn, and have a 
tendency to droop. 

The color markings are quite distinctive. The head and 



2 28 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

throat are white, with white extending over the breast and 
under the body. White also extends from the top of the neck 
to the middle of the shoulder. The rest of the body is red, 
varying in intensity from dark to light red. 

The Hereford puts on flesh at all ages. For this reason it 
is a popular breed for the production of " baby beef," i.e., 
cattle that can be put on the market between twelve and 
twenty-four months of age, weighing from 800 to 1200 
pounds. 

The breed is very hardy. It is also a superior grazer, 
having the ability to make a good growth on pasture alone. 
These characteristics probably account for the predominance 
of " white faces," as the breed is sometimes called, on the 
western ranges. 

As a milk producer the Hereford is poor, the cows producing 
scarcely enough milk for their young. 

Aberdeen-Angus. — • This breed has all the characteristics 
of the beef type. Indeed, it may be said to approach closely 
the ideal of the beef type. The proof of this statement is 
indicated by the fact that this breed has been represented 
among the winners at the International Stock Exposition for 
a number of years and has topped the cattle market at 
Chicago, with one exception, each year for more than twenty 
years. The Aberdeen- Angus is an excellent feeder and 
matures early. It is less hardy than the Hereford and seems 
to reach its best development in the Corn Belt. It produces 
an excellent quahty of beef and has a high dressing per- 
centage. It is not a milk producer but ranks somewhat 
higher than the Hereford in this respect. 

Galloway. ^ Like the Aberdeen- Angus, an animal of this 
breed has a short round body, is black in color, and has no 
horns. It is not likely to be mistaken for the Aberdeen- 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 



229 



Angus, because of its long shaggy coat of hair and rounded, 
instead of pointed, poll. 

The Galloway does not reach as great size as other breeds. 
It is an economical feeder, especially in its ability to make use 
of rough feed and pasture. This characteristic, together with 
its extreme hardiness, makes it a desirable breed for certain 
parts of the west and north. In western Kansas, for example. 




An example of the Aberdeen- Angus breed of beef cattle. An Aber- 
deen-Angus cow. Compare with cow of any dairy breed. 
(U.S. Department of Agriculture.) 



feeding experiments seem to indicate that the Galloway is 
superior to all other breeds through its adaptation to the 
rigorous climatic conditions of this region. Its flesh makes 
meat of excellent quality. It is next to the Aberdeen-Angus 
in dressing percentage. 

In winter the hair is very thick and long, and the hide 
commands a high price. It is tanned and made into robes 



230 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

that are said to be equal to the buffalo robes so common a 
half century ago. 

The Galloway is a better milk producer than some of the 
other breeds but not equal to the Shorthorn. 

Development of the herd. — Cows conforming to the beef 
type and a bull of the breed desired are necessary for the 
foundation herd. By employing the principles of grading 
discussed in Chapter XX, a herd of good beef cattle may be 
gradually developed. 

Feed lots and buildings. — Beef cattle need little protection 
from cold, but require dry and comfortable quarters in which 
to lie. Muddy or frozen ground compels the animals to 
stand, thereby enforcing an expenditure of some of the energy 
derived from feed that might otherwise produce flesh. A 
feed lot with a southern exposure, provided with a shelter 
from rains and winds, meets the ordinary requirements. A 
covered feed lot not only gives good protection to cattle but 
has the added advantage of preserving the fertilizing value of 
manure. 

Feeding and management. — In applying the principles of 
feeding already considered to raising beef cattle, the question 
of economy is of especial importance. Economy in feeding 
can usually be best attained by the use of pasture and leg- 
uminous forage, in summer, and roughage with some grain 
and leguminous hay, in winter. But in the final or finishing 
period a liberal amount of grain balanced with leguminous 
hay must be used. If the finishing period begins in the spring 
when there is good pasture, the grain ration can be much 
reduced, and the cost of finishing thereby diminished. 

Aside from supplying feed or pasture, water and salt, it 
requires perhaps less attention to raise beef cattle than other 
farm animals. 



PRODUCTION OF BEEF CATTLE 231 

Marketing. — A glance at the market quotations of a 
cattle market will show a wide difference in the prices of the 
various grades. The following reproduction of part of a 
daily market report will illustrate this point: 

KILLING STEERS 

Extra good, 1,300 lbs. up $13. 75 @ $14.00 

Good to choice, 1,250 lbs. up 13.00 @ 13.50 

Common to medium, 1,250 lbs. up 12.25 @ i3-oo 

Good to choice, 1,100 to 1,200 lbs 11.75 @ 12.50 

Common to medium, 1,100 to 1,200 lbs 11.25© ii-75 

Good to choice , i ,000 to i ,100 lbs 11.25 @ 1 1 • 75 

Common to medium, 1,000 to 1,100 lbs 10. 50 @ n . 25 

Fair to good, under i ,000 lbs 10. 00 @ 1 1 . 00 

Good to choice yearlings 1 1 . 50 @ 12.75 

STOCKERS AND FEEDING CATTLE 

Good to choice steers, 800 lbs. up $10.00 @ $11 .00 

Common to fair steers, 800 lbs. up 9.00 @ 10.00 

Good to choice steers, under 800 lbs 9. 50 @ 10. 00 

Common to fair steers, under 800 lbs 8 . 00 @ 9 . 00 

Medium to good heifers 7 . 00 @ 8 . 00 

Medium to good cows 6 . 00 @ 7 . 00 

Good to choice milkers 110.00 @ 135.00 

Fair to medium milkers 75 . 00 @ 100 . 00 

Stock calves, 250 to 400 lbs 7.00 @ 10. 50 

Springers 7- 5° @ 9- 50 

Young animals, well finished but not too fat, and weighing 
from 1200 to 1400 pounds, meet the market demand for the 
better grades. The essential features determining a high- 
class beef animal, from the market standpoint, as presented 
in an earlier paragraph of this chapter should be referred to 
in this connection. 

To secure the best return cattle should reach the market 
well finished after a short feeding period. A long feeding 
period is not only expensive, but, owing to the large amount 
of fat accumulated, the cattle do not always find favor on the 
market. 

Feeders — Reference has already been made in Chapter 
XX to the production of beef by the use of feeders. The 



232 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

discussion and illustrations should be reviewed at this point. 
It is a common practice of the farmers of the Corn Belt to 
buy range cattle at the large cattle markets, for use as feeders. 
When such cattle are bought they are full grown but thin. 
After a few months of feeding on hay and grain they are ready 
for the market. There are many systems of feeding, but they 
all make an appHcation of the principles of feeding presented 
in Chapter XX. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
MILK PRODUCTION 

Dairy farming differs from other kinds of farming devoted 
to live-stock production, because the product as well as the 
animals producing it must be considered. Milk, butter and 
cheese will always be in great demand for they are almost 
indispensable -foods. As the population of town and city 
increases the demand, the output of these products is likely 
to increase also. Since a steady market seems to be assured, 
the question of whether or not to produce milk for sale will 
depend upon other factors; of these the two most important 
are a means of disposing of the products, and a means of 
securing and utilizing labor. 

Market and shipping facilities. — Milk and cream are 
highly perishable products; therefore, a location close to 
shipping points or to creameries is a first essential to success. 
On farms remote from a means of disposal the production of 
milk for sale is not a feasible farm enterprise. 

Labor. — Labor is an important item in milk production. 
Although it is not fully employed it must be regular. It 
has been estimated that one man's labor is required for each 
twelve to fourteen cows. The size of the herd must depend 
therefore upon the help available. Since labor in milk pro- 
duction is only partly employed each day, and less is 
required in summer than in winter, some provision must be 
made to keep it fully employed. 

233 



234 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

To utilize this labor surplus to the best advantage is a 
problem of farm management permitting many solutions. 
The aim, however, is always the same — to secure the greatest 
net return from the entire farm. Many general or small 
dairy farmers use the surplus labor to produce feed needed 
for the stock and also to produce one or more cash crops to 
add to the farm income. 

The difhculty of securing labor and using it to the best 
advantage is one of the greatest drawbacks to dairy farming 
and accounts, in part, for the small number of strictly dairy 




Diagram of three aspects of a dairy cow, each 
of which presents a wedge-shaped outhne. 

A . As viewed from front. 

B. As viewed from behind. 

C. As viewed from side. 

farms — only about six per cent of all the farms in the entire 
country. Most of the dairy products are produced on those 
farms where small herds of cows are kept, and where most 
of the income is derived from other sources. These small 
herds are fed largely upon crop residue and other low-cost 
feeds, and only home labor is employed. The return, al- 
though small, is almost clear gain and means so much added 
income. 

Principles of milk production. — How to produce dairy 
products with the greatest profit is a problem of interest 
to the dair)niian and also to every farmer who keeps cows. 




An example of improvement of dairy cows by grading. 

A. Scrub cow. Best record, 4588.4 lbs. milk, and 210.67 lbs. of fat. 

B. Holstein X scrub cow, first cross, daughter of scrub shown in A. Four 
year old record, 6822.8 lbs milk, and 283.75 lbs. fat, an increase of 49 per 
cent in milk, 41 per cent in fat, and $22.38 in profit over dam's best record. 

C. Second generation Holstein grade heifer calf, daughter of cow shown in 
B. Not until the second generation do most Holstein grades show white 
markings typical of pure breds (Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



236 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

This problem will be considered by taking up each aspect 
separately: first, the dairy herd; second, the handling and 
care of milk. 

The Dairy Herd 

Experience has shown that an economical production of 
milk depends chiefly upon the kind of cows, their proper 
feeding, and good management. 

Kind of cows to keep. — The only accurate way to find a 
cow's value as a milk producer is to weigh her product at 
each milking, and to test the milk for butter fat at intervals, 
using the Babcock test. From the data secured, the value 
of her product may be compared with the cost of her feed 
and care. 

However, there are certain characteristics associated with 
milk production that may indicate to some extent whether 
the animal is a good or poor producer of milk. These 
characteristics, based upon the physical requirements 
associated with producing milk, are the digestive system, 
which makes the feed ready to enter the blood; the circulatory 
system, which distributes nutrients; the respiratory system, 
which supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide and other 
gaseous impurities; the udder, an organ which takes certain 
material from the blood and makes it over into milk; and the 
nervous system, which coordinates and regulates the work 
of all the various organs concerned. A good representative 
of the dairy type should show a high degree of development 
in all these respects. In general, the conformation of an 
animal of the dairy type is in every way the reverse of that 
of the beef type. In the dairy type it is desirable that the 
feed should be used mainly to produce milk; in the beef type, 
to produce flesh. 



MILK PRODUCTION 



237 



The following are the most essential characteristics of a 
cow of the dairy type: she should be triangular in shape, as 
viewed from side, above and in front; spare, long, lean, 
narrow of head and neck; light in shoulder and sharp at 




How a milk record is kept. Milk balances and record sheet are 
chief features. (Adapted from CorneU Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 

withers; broad in hindquarters but lean and spare; deep in 
chest, with ribs well sprung, wide apart and prominent; 
large in abdominal capacity, allowing room for well developed 
digestive organs; nervous in temperament — indicated by 



238 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



spare and open conformation, absence of flesh, and prominence 
of bony parts; she should have a well-developed udder — 
extending well forward, fine, not too firm or meaty in 
texture. 

The possession of all these characteristic points is an 
important indication of the value of an animal as a milk 




Holstein-Friesian Cow 



producer, but should be regarded as an indication only, and 
should be checked by an actual production test. 

The importance of emphasizing a high milk production in 
dairy cows is not sufficiently recognized by farmers. In 
Ohio, for example, according to census figures, the average 
production of the dairy cow is about 3500 pounds of milk 
annually. It requires approximately the value of 4000 to 
5000 pounds of milk to pay for the proper care and food of 
one cow for one year. The figures for Ohio probably repre- 



MILK PRODUCTION 



239 



sent the average for the whole country. A few years ago, 
in IlKnois, a careful study was made of the production of 
36 dairy herds containing 554 cows. Of this number the best 
fourth yielded a profit of $31.32 for each cow, while the 
lowest fourth gave a return of only 77 cents per cow. On 
this basis, it would take forty poor cows to yield the same 
profit as one good one. 

The foundation herd may be gradually improved by elimi- 




Ayrshire Cow 

nating low-producing cows (using the Babcock test and milk 
records), and by applying the principles of grading. When 
grading the herd a well-bred sire will make an improvement 
even in the first generation. The influence of the sire is 
illustrated by the following examples. A scrub cow, whose 
best record was 3534.3 pounds of milk and 190.29 pounds of 
butter fat, produced a daughter with a record of 5137.7 



240 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

pounds of milk and 251.85 pounds of butter fat. The sire 
was a pure-bred Holstein. On the other hand, a cow, yielding 
4916 pounds of milk and 204.91 pounds of butter fat, pro- 
duced a daughter whose record was 13 per cent less milk 
and 6 per cent less butter fat. In this case the sire was a 
poor one. 

Breeds of dairy cattle. — Among the most important 
breeds of dairy cattle are the Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, 
and Guernsey. 

Holstein. — The ofhcial name of this breed is Holstein- 
Friesian but it is commonly called Holstein. It is the largest 
of the dairy breeds. Its color is always black and white, 
varying in proportion in different individuals from almost 
pure white to almost pure black. 

The Holstein ranks first in the quantity of milk production, 
but low in the percentage of butter fat. The strong points 
of the breed aside from high milk yield are vigor of consti- 
tution, good disposition, and its value for beef and veal. 

Ayrshire. — This breed is next to the Holstein in size. 
An Ayrshire may be recognized by its red and white, or 
brown and white, spotted body and its sharp, erect, outward, 
upward, and backward curving horns. It is less angular than 
other dairy breeds, having smoother shoulders and fuller hind- 
quarters. The udder is said to be the most perfect of any 
breed, particularly the fore udder. 

As a milk producer, the Ayrshire is not equal to the Hol- 
stein in quantity of milk, or the Jersey and Guernsey in 
percentage of butter fat. Its value for beef and veal is about 
equal to that of the Holstein. 

Jersey. — Individuals of this breed are the smallest of the 
dairy breeds common in this country. The color ranges from 
light fawn to dark gray or black, the most common being 



MILK PRODUCTION 



241 




Jersey Cow- 




Guernsey Cow 



242 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

fawn shading into black. Its milk production is low in 
quantity as compared with the Holstein, but high in per- 
centage of butter fat. For beef and veal it is of little value. 

The Jersey is sensitive in disposition, becoming docile 
and easily managed if treated gently, but the reverse if 
abused. 

Guernsey. — This breed is similar to the Jersey in many 
respects. It is somewhat larger and more angular. Its 
colors tend toward reddish yellow or orange fawn, with white 
markings. The milk and butter produced by Guernseys have 
a higher color than that of any other breed. In quantity of 
milk and percentage of butter fat, this breed does not differ 
greatly from that of the Jersey. 

Dairy Shorthorn. — A reference was made in Chapter XXII 
to the high rank of the Shorthorn as a milk producer. This 
characteristic of the Shorthorn is of especial advantage 
to the farmer who keeps but few cows. Cows of this breed 
will not only supply sufficient milk for his needs but also 
produce calves that can be developed into superior beef 
cattle. 

Feeding dairy cattle. — The percentage of butter fat in the 
milk of each animal remains nearly constant, regardless of 
the amount or character of feed used, but a good ration may 
increase the percentage slightly. The quantity of milk, on 
the other hand, depends largely on the ration. 

A maintenance ration, explained in Chapter XX, is about 
the same for all dairy animals of the same weight. But the 
productive ration varies according to the capacity of the 
animal for milk production — the larger the capacity for 
milk production, the greater the ration. The following table 
shows the nutrients required in a maintenance ration for 
cows of various weights: 



MILK PRODUCTION 243 

Weight 



600. 

700. 

800. 

900. 
1000. 
1 100. 
1200. 





Carbohydrates and 


In {pounds) 


Pais {pounds) 


.42 


4-34 


.49 


S.06 


.56 


5. 78 


•6s 


6.50 


.70 


7-23 


•77 


7-95 


.84 


8.67 



The amount of feed added to that required for maintenance 
will be used chiefly for the production of milk. The extra 
feed should be sufficient to keep the cow at her fullest ca- 
pacity of milk production. As a guide to the amount of 
each nutrient needed in a productive ration is given the 
following table of nutrients required to produce one pound 
of the various grades of milk: 

Butter fat, 
per cent 



3.. 

35. 

4.. 

4-5 

5.- 

5-5- 

6.. 





Carbohydrates and 


in {pounds) 


Fats {pounds) 


.04 


.224 


.042 


.246 


.046 


.271 


.049 


•305 


.052 


•327 


.055 


•340 


.057 


.364 



By using the table it will be easy to calculate the amount 
of nutrients required to keep up milk production and per- 
centage of butter fat, when the percentage of butter fat and 
the daily yield of milk are known. The entire ration will 
include the nutrients required for both maintenance and 
production. For example, if an 800-pound cow produces 
30 pounds of milk testing 5.5 per cent of butter fat, she would 



244 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

require for maintenance .56 pounds of protein and 5.78 
pounds of carbohydrates and fats; for production, 1.65 
pound of protein and 10.2 pounds of carbohydrates and fats. 
By consulting the table of nutrients in the appendix a se- 
lection of feeds may be made that will meet the requirements 
of the ration as calculated. 

The standard ration forms a good basis for an intelligent 
feeding of dairy cows. It may have to be modified somewhat 
to suit individual cows, as some may require more, and some 
less, than the estimated amount. Often it is possible to 
increase the milk production of a cow considerably by bring- 
ing her ration up to what it ought to be. For example, by 
changing and standardizing the rations of a herd of poorly 
fed cows, it was found that the quantity of milk could almost 
be doubled, while at the same time the condition of the cows 
was greatly improved. 

In making a ration to conform to the standard for dairy 
cows it is necessary to keep in mind the need of the animal 
for both roughage and concentrates. Roughage aids digestion 
by lightening and distributing the concentrates, which furnish 
most of the protein and considerable amounts of easily di- 
gested material, such as starch. 

The most frequent mistake in feeding cows for milk pro- 
duction is a failure to give them enough feed. This mistake 
is often due to allowing roughage to constitute the main 
part of the feed. The animals may seem satisfied, but will 
not have a sufficient amount of nutrients to produce to their 
full capacity. Especially is this the case with the best type 
of dairy cows. The most profitable feeding, when milk 
production is the object, is liberal feeding. 

Economy in feeding must also be taken into consideration; 
that is, the cost or value of the feed. In other words, the 



MILK PRODUCTION 245 

requirements of feeding for milk production, as just set 
forth, must be met at the least expense. 

In actual practice, summer and winter feeding present 
separate problems. In summer, the bulk of the feed is ob- 
tained from pasture. But ordinarily the nutrients obtained 
from pasture are not enough for the best milk production, 
and they should be supplemented sufficiently to bring the 
ration up to standard. The rations may be standardized by 
the addition of a concentrate, such as grain. The amount 
added may range from three to ten pounds, depending upon 
the size of the cow and her milk-yielding capacity; for ex- 
ample, three pounds for a small Jersey cow producing twenty 
pounds of milk daily, or, ten pounds for a large Holstein 
producing fifty pounds of milk daily. 

In winter, the cow must be supplied with a palatable, well- 
balanced ration. Mixed feed, consisting of more than one 
kind of roughage including some succulent feed, such as 
silage, and several kinds of concentrates will tend to keep 
the cow up to her full productive capacity. 

Among all the feeds best adapted for dairy cattle, silage 
has come to be recognized as the most important. It furnishes 
roughage land succulence, and approaches summer feed. It 
also reduces the requirement of hay and grain in the ration. 
For these reasons silage is very desirable in all rations for 
dairy cows. 

An experiment was made at the Ohio State Agricultural 
Experiment Station to determine '^ what effect the feeding 
of more silage than is usually fed by dairymen, with a corre- 
sponding reduction in the grain portion of the ration, might 
have upon the production of milk, butter fat, gain in live 
weight, cost of ration, and consequent profit." Both rations 
conformed to the same feeding standard with almost the 



246 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

same amount of digestible dry matter, but in one the nutrients 
were composed chiefly of concentrates; in the other, of silage. 
The silage consisted of one ton of soy beans and cowpeas 
mixed, to two and one-half tons of silage corn. The cows, 
similar in breeds and general condition, were divided into 
two lots of five each and were fed the different rations. The 
results showed the cost of milk per hundred pounds to be 
$.687 with the silage ration, and $1,055 with the grain ration. 
The cost of feed, per pound of butter fat, was 13. i cents with 
the silage ration and 22.1 cents with the grain ration. Other 
experiments as well as the experience of dairymen seem to 
bear out the results of this experiment and point to the value 
of silage as a feed for dairy cows. 

Silage has also been found to be excellent feed for beef 
cattle. It would seem well worth while for the general farmer, 
who feeds beef cattle and who also keeps a few dairy cows, to 
make use of the silo for providing the greater part of the 
roughage for his feeding. 

Management. — It has been suggested that since cows 
reach their maximum production of milk in early summer, the 
conditions influencing this production should be reproduced 
as far as possible throughout the year. These conditions are 
chiefly an abundance of palatable and succulent feeds, mod- 
erate temperature, and comfortable surroundings. The first 
of these will be met by following the plan for winter feed- 
ing presented in a previous paragraph. The heat from the 
bodies of the animals, in well enclosed barns, will keep the 
temperature from becoming too low even in very cold 
weather, but it is also important to have the barn well 
ventilated. Good clean bedding and attention to cleanli- 
ness will do much to add to the comfort of the cows. Fresh 
water should be supphed in abundance. 



MILK PRODUCTION 247 

Regular attention is of especial importance. This applies 
to time of milking, time of feeding, period for exercise and 
water in the winter, and for cleaning the stalls. Cows should 
not be disturbed when lying down during the middle of the 
day. Kind treatment should be the invariable rule. Dairy 
cows are usually sensitive and respond to gentle care and 
humane treatment. 



Handling and Care of Milk 

Importance of clean milk. — The quantity of milk ob- 
tained is influenced by the kind of cows kept, and by their 
feeding. The quahty of the milk depends upon how it is 
handled. Both quantity and quahty must be considered if 
milk is to be produced with profit. Keeping milk clean, 
whether it is used to supply the farm home or is sold, is 
extremely important. If it is to be sold, milk which has 
been certified or guaranteed to be clean brings a higher 
price. Dirty milk may not be allowed to be sold at all. 
The farmer should be quite as careful with the milk that is 
used in his own home as he is required to be with that for 
sale. 

The reason for placing so much emphasis upon the cleanli- 
ness of milk Hes in the injurious effects that are known to 
follow the use of impure milk. Dirt is a source of real danger 
because of the bacteria that are always associated with it. 
It is now well known that impure milk is the cause of many 
digestive disorders, especially in children. Besides, other 
more serious diseases, such as typhoid fever and diphtheria, 
have been traced to a milk supply that was infected through 
the ignorance or carelessness of someone handling the milk. 
The effects of impure milk are regarded as being so dangerous 



248 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

to health that the sale of milk is regulated in most cities. If 
impure milk is dangerous to people living in cities it is no less 
dangerous to those living in villages or upon farms. 

How impurities get into milk. — Milk may receive im- 
purities at every stage of handling from the moment it is 
drawn until used by the consumer. Particles of dirt and 
bacteria may get into the milk from the cow, during the 
movements of milking; from the dust of the stable or milk 
yard; from the hands and clothing of the milker; and from 
the milk pail or other containers if not thoroughly clean. 
The milk from cows suffering from udder troubles of any kind, 
or from those that give bloody or ropy milk, should not be 
used as food until the cows are cured. 

Much care should be taken to keep the body of the cow 
clean: First, the cow should be thoroughly groomed to re- 
move loose hairs and dirt that might fall into the milk pail 
(grooming should take place long enough before milking 
time to allow the dust to settle); second, the udder and 
flanks should be wiped with a damp cloth, just before milk- 
ing, to remove loose dirt and hairs. The need for this practice 
is emphasized by the following test made by the Illinois 
State Agricultural Experiment Station: Sixty trials were 
made at different seasons of the year. '' With udders that 
were apparently clean it was found that an average of three 
and one-half times as much dirt fell from unwashed udders 
as after they were washed. With soiled udders the average 
was twenty-two times and with muddy udders the average 
was ninety-four times as much dirt from the unwashed 
udders as from the same udders after washing." 

The stable. — The stable should be kept as clean as possible 
in all respects, should have plenty of well distributed light 
and good ventilation. Smooth walls and ceilings, water- 



MILK PRODUCTION 



249 



tight, easily drained floors, manure gutters, of the right size 
and properly spaced, are necessary to secure the best condi- 
tions for cleanliness. Sunlight is a good germicide and 
should have access to various parts of the stable. It also 
promotes the health of the cows. 

Good ventilation is not only important for the welfare of 
the cows, but also for the purpose of removing odors that are 
readily absorbed by the milk. 

Feeding, handling the bedding, and cleaning the stable 

m lA ti'li 



i ^1 l¥l 





Types of milk pails 

A. Open pail allowing free access to falling 
dirt. 

B and C. So-called sanitary pails designed to 
reduce the amount of dirt falling into milk. 



should be done in time to allow the dust to settle before 
milking. 

The milker. — The milker should exercise cleanliness. His 
hands should be washed and carefully dried before milking. 
His clothes should be free from dirt that might be dislodged 
and get into the milk. Some dairymen require the milkers 
to wear clean white suits in order that dirt may be seen 
which might otherwise pass unnoticed. 



250 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Utensils. — The best milk pail is one that will allow the 
least amount of dirt to fall into the milk during the milking 
process. There are several designs of small-top pails that are 
good. Tests have shown that sixty per cent less dirt and 
twenty-five to ninety per cent fewer bacteria enter the milk 
when proper pails are used. Besides having a small top, the 
milk pail should be so constructed as to have all the joints 
perfectly smooth. Open spaces are almost impossible to 
keep clean. 

To clean milk pails and the milk containers they should 
first be dipped into cold water to rinse off the film of milk; 
then washed, using a brush, with warm water and washing 
powder ; and finally riused with boiling water and, when pos- 
sible, sterilized with live steam or placed in the sun to dry 
where they will be free from dust. 

Cooling the milk. — Under conditions favorable to their 
growth bacteria multiply very rapidly; Some reproduce as 
often as every half-hour. A small number, at this rate, 
would increase to an enormous number in a few hours. Warm, 
freshly drawn milk affords ideal conditions for the rapid 
development of bacteria. For this reason it is important to 
cool the milk as soon as possible after it is drawn, and to 
keep it cool. Various means are employed for this purpose. 
The best dairies use ice, but cold water is also effective. 
The container should be set in a tank of cold water, prefer- 
ably ice water, and the milk stirred at least every ten minutes 
until the cooling process is complete; otherwise the center of 
the mass of milk will remain warm for a long time. 

Tests as to the effect of cooling milk on its bacterial content 
and on its curdling period have demonstrated the effective- 
ness of the practice of keeping milk cool. When a sample 
was kept at a temperature of 45 degs. F., the number of 



MILK PRODUCTION 251 

bacteria per cubic centimeter at the end of twelve hours was 
9300, and the milk curdled at the end of 75 hours. When a 
sample of the same kind of milk was kept at 80 deg. F., at 
the end of twelve hours the number of bacteria per cubic 
centimeter was 55,300,000, and the milk curdled in 28 hours. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 

The advisability of producing sheep on a farm depends 
upon the demands of the market, the general prospects for 
sheep production, and upon whether the particular farm 
affords conditions favorable for the profitable production of 
sheep. 

Market demands. — The supply of lamb and mutton in 
the United States has been declining, while the demand, 
particularly for lambs, has been growing. The demand for 
wool is not so constant. The Western sheep ranges on 
^hich most of the sheep of the country are produced are 
being reduced in area, with a corresponding decrease in 
shipments. It is estimated that outside of the region of 
sheep ranges the present production may be increased three- 
fold without interfering with other live-stock production. 
This increase might be realized by a better utilization of land 
too rough for cultivation but suitable for grazing. 

Conditions favorable for profitable production of sheep. — 
Sheep thrive best on high, dry land but do well on any land 
that is not too low and wet. They graze over wide areas and 
feed upon a variety of plants, preferring short, fine grasses to 
coarser plants. If the grazing areas are not large, forage crops 
must be provided. Fields for forage crops should be small or 
subdivided by temporary fences so as to afford a frequent 
change of grazing areas. This is necessary in order to 

252 



SHEEP PRODUCTION 



253 



maintain the health of the flock. The chief feeding require- 
ments are met if frequent changes of good pastures and 
grazing crops are provided for the open season, and legumi- 
nous hay for the winter. Some grain is needed, especially 
in the latter part of winter just after the lambs appear. 

The feeding requirements can be secured on many farms 
that contain hilly land not fully utilized for grazing. Low- 
priced land and low-priced feed furnish the best combination 
for profitable sheep production. This appHes both to raising 
iambs and sheep, and to fattening feeders. 




Diagram of side of mutton showing position of different cuts. 
Note amount of leg and loin. 

Stocking the farm. — As indicated in a previous chapter, 
farm animals may either be raised on the farm or bought for 
feeding purposes. Either plan may be followed in sheep 
production, but the former, perhaps, is the most desirable 
for most farms. 

Raising sheep on the farm. — The kind of sheep to raise, 
getting a start, equipment, feeding, general care, and market- 
ing are important matters to be considered in raising sheep 
on a farm. The kind of farm best suited to profitable pro- 
duction has already been considered in this chapter. But 
level farms entirely under cultivation, like the typical prairie 
farms of Illinois, have produced sheep profitably when com- 
bined with other stock production. 



254 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Kind of sheep to raise. — The selection of type and breed 
should take into consideration the kind of pasture and feed 
to be used, and the system of farming in which sheep raising 
is to be included. For example, if the farm is very rough 
and sparsely covered with grazing plants, some hardy breed, 
such as the American Merino for wool, or the Cheviot for 
both wool and mutton, would probably be the best selection. 
If the system of farming is one in which much grain is pro- 
duced and other live stock raised, some breed of sheep that 
could clean up roughage and crop residues, and that would 
fatten easily when fed grain would be a good choice. The 
Shropshire, or some other medium-wooled breed, would 
answer this purpose. 

It is usually wise to select the same type and breed already 
being raised successfully in the community, for there is an 
advantage in cooperation among farmers to secure superior 
breeding stock. 

The following is a brief outline giving some of the charac- 
teristics of the common breeds of sheep. There are two types, 
corresponding to dairy and beef types of cattle — one being 
valuable mainly for wool and the other for mutton. 

Wooled type. — Sheep of this type are frequently referred 
to as " fine wools " to distinguish them from sheep of the 
mutton type which also produces wool, less valuable because 
of its coarseness. The sheep of the fine- wooled type are 
probably descendants of the Spanish sheep known as Merinos, 
and " Merino " is commonly used to designate this type. 

The Merino is characterized by its dense covering of very 
finely crimped wool, and when shorn, by its angular body. 
Merinos in America are of two breeds: American Merino, 
and Rambouillet or French Merino. 

American Merino. — Sheep of this breed are of three 
classes, A, B, C. These classes may be distinguished by the 



SHEEP PRODUCTION 



255 



number of folds in the skin. Class A is most heavily folded; 
class B, less; and class C, sometimes called Delaine Merino, 
is nearly smooth except for folds around the neck. Sheep 
of the C class have coarser wool and larger bodies than those 
of the other two classes. 

In weight and quahty of fleece the American Merino is 




Wool type of sheep. Rambouillet. 
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



not equalled by any other breed, but as a mutton producer 
it is much inferior to mutton breeds. 

French Merino or Rambouillet. — This breed was de- 
veloped in France with the aim of securing a breed both for 
fine wool and mutton. It is much larger than the American 
Merino, but ranks lower in percentage of fleece to body 
weight and in fineness of wool. It fattens well and produces 
a fair quality of mutton, but as a mutton producer is not 
equal to mutton breeds. 



256 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Mutton type. — Sheep of these breeds bear the same 
relation to those of the wooled type as cattle of the beef type 
bear to those of the dairy type. Their conformation is similar 
to that of beef cattle — blocky with well developed back, 
loin, and hindquarters. 

Mutton breeds are of two classes, long- wooled and medium- 
wooled. The former includes the Leicester, Cotswold, and 




Heavy mutton type — long wool. Lincoln breed. 
(University of Illinois.) 

Lincoln; the latter, the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford, 
Hampshire, Dorset, and Cheviot. 

Long-wooled breeds. — Sheep of these breeds are large, 
with heavy fleeces of long, coarse wool. They are adapted 
to level regions and will do well on lands too low for sheep 
of medium- wooled breeds. They require for their best de- 
velopment an abundance of feed. 

Medium- wooled breeds. — ^ These breeds are valuable for 
the production of both mutton and wool, but chiefly for 



SHEEP PRODUCTION 



257 



mutton. The breeds vary considerably in their capacities for 
mutton and wool production. The Southdown is the smallest 
and is regarded as the most perfect of the mutton type. It 
produces a good quahty of wool, but not a large quantity. 
It is well adapted to hilly pastures. 
The Shropshire is medium in size and in fleece. It com- 




Mutton type — medium wool. Shropshire. 
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

bines many excellent qualities and is perhaps the most popular 
of all the mutton breeds in America. 

The Oxford is the largest representative of the mutton 
type. It also yields the heaviest fleece among the medium- 
wooled breeds. 

The Hampshire is nearly as large as the Oxford. It is 
lacking somewhat in the quality of mutton and fleece but 
has the abihty to make rapid gains in weight, surpassing 
other breeds in this respect. 



258 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

The Dorset yields a fair quality of mutton and a light 
fleece. Its lambs are produced earlier than others; hence it 
is valuable for raising spring lambs for an. early market. 

The Cheviot is an exceedingly hardy breed and is especially 
adapted for use on rough grazing land. 

Making a start. — The principles of animal improvement 
as set forth in Chapter XX should be kept in mind and 
systematically carried out. Young ewes conforming as 
nearly as possible to the type desired should be secured for 
the foundation stock. The ram should be a good representa- 
tive of the breed chosen. In a few years, through the process 
of grading, the foundation stock can be replaced by well- 
bred animals. 

Equipment. — The most important equipment consists of 
buildings and fences. Dryness and good ventilation free 
from drafts are the main essentials to be provided in a build- 
ing or shelter for sheep. Any building possessing these 
essentials will be satisfactory. Neither smooth nor barbed 
wire fences can be used to advantage because of the danger 
of catching the wool. A woven wire fence is perhaps the 
best; it not only makes a safe enclosure but also affords 
protection against dogs. 

Feeding. — The general plan for feeding sheep has already 
been suggested in an earher paragraph. During the grazing 
season provision for good pasture is usually sufficient. Dur- 
ing the winter, plenty of roughage, including legumes of 
some kind to balance the ration, and a small amount of grain 
will meet the general feeding requirements. 

General care and management. — There are many details 
in the care and management of sheep that must be omitted 
in this discussion for lack of space. A few principles only 
can be presented. 



SHEEP PRODUCTION 



259 



In summer, good grazing with frequent change of pasture, 
plenty of water and shade, and access to salt should be pro- 
vided. If lambs are kept over summer they will need to be 
protected against stomach worms and other internal para- 
sites. This may be accomphshed by keeping the lambs 
separated from the older sheep, in uninfected pastures. 

In winter, sheep provide their own protection against cold, 
but must be protected against wet and drafts by means of 
suitable shelter. They also need plenty of exercise. If they 
are kept in a large, dry feed-lot, they may be compelled to 
take sufficient exercise by scattering rough feed over the lot. 
When the lambs appear, in late winter and early spring, they 
must receive much special care in order to give them a good 
start in life. Especially is it necessary to look after weak 
lambs by providing warmth and food until they become strong 
enough to take care of themselves. 

Marketing. — Experience seems to show that the greatest 
profit from sheep raising on the average farm is realized by 
having lambs ready for market at three to five months of 
age. An early marketing of lambs has these advantages: 
a saving of feed, and, usually, a high selling price; in addition, 
the risk of loss by internal parasites during the summer is 
avoided. 

When the early market plan is followed, all the lambs are 
sold except those selected for addition to the breeding stock. 
During the following year the lambs which are retained will 
be ready to take the place of the least useful of the older 
ewes. The latter are then fattened and sold. 

Feeders. — Instead of raising sheep to feed, some farmers 
buy them on the market, feed them until in good condition 
and then sell them. Most of the sheep in large markets come 
from the ranges, as at the Chicago market. When they 



26o PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

arrive at the stock-yards they are sorted; those in good 
condition are sold for mutton, and the rest are offered as 
feeders. The feeders are divided into several classes — feeder 
lambs, feeder yearlings, etc. Lambs are in greater demand 
for feeders, as they can be fed during the winter and shorn 
in the spring just before they are ready for the market. This 
practice affords three possible means of profit; the gain in 
weight during the feeding period, the margin of profit be- 
tween buying and selling price, and sale of the wool. 

It is seldom profitable to buy sheep raised on farms in the 
central, southern, and eastern states. Sheep coming from 
these regions are likely to be infested with internal parasites 
and are difficult or impossible to fatten. Western sheep, on 
the other hand, are rarely infested by parasites. Their poor 
condition is mainly due to lack of finish. When put on good 
pastures, or well fed, they usually make rapid gains. 



CHAPTER XXV 
HOG PRODUCTION 

Hog production, as a farm enterprise, depends for its 
success upon the prospects for continued market demand and 
upon the capacity of the particular farm to furnish sufficient 
grain and forage for economical feeding. 

Market demand. — In normal times, pork consitutes more 
than one-half of the meat produced in the United States. It 
is the chief source of meat and fat for a considerable portion 
of the population. Before the Great War (1910-1914) an 
average of 900,000,000 pounds was exported annually after 
home demands were satisfied. In 191 7, 1,417,000,000 pounds 
were exported. The foreign demand for our pork will doubt- 
less continue much beyond the years immediately following 
the war period, while home consumption is likely to increase 
as the necessity for food conservation grows less. 

Conditions favorable to hog production. — The hog re- 
produces more rapidly and gains weight at less expense 
than any other meat animal. But in order to make the most 
of these two characteristics an abundance of feed is neces- 
sary. The first essential for successful hog production on a 
farm is to provide plenty of concentrates, such as corn, for 
feed. It is also desirable to have some leguminous forage 
crop, such as clover, to balance the ration and to reduce the 
cost. Hog production should succeed on any farm where 
corn can be raised cheaply. It is significant that the greatest 

261 



262 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

hog-producing states are in the Corn Belt. Hogs will do well 
in other states, but neither corn nor substitutes can be pro- 
duced as cheaply as in the Corn Belt. 

Stocking the farm. — Hogs are most frequently raised on 
the farm. Occasionally feeders are bought to be finished for 
market. But it is difficult to secure feeders, because it is 
usually more profitable for the owner himself to finish them 
for market than to sell before they are in market condition. 

Raising hogs on the farm. — The chief factors to be con- 
sidered in raising hogs on the farm are the kind to raise; 
getting a start; feeding; general care; and marketing. 

Kinds of hogs. — There are two types of hogs, the lard 




Diagram of side of hog showing position of various cuts. 

type and the bacon type. At present in the United States, 
hogs are almost universally of the lard type. The predomi- 
nance of lard hogs may be explained by the fact that they 
may be produced more economically than the same weight 
of hogs of the bacon type and have as good market value. 

Generally, the wisest course is to choose the breed used 
by successful hog raisers of the community in which the 
farm is located. It is important, however, to be informed 
as to the characteristics and merits of the common breeds 
of each type. This information is condensed in the following 
summary : 

Bacon type. — As the name indicates, hogs of this type 
are raised chiefly for the production of bacon; the side, 



HOG PRODUCTION 



263 




Bacon type of hog. Yorkshire. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 




Lard type of hog. Poland China. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



264 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

therefore, is the important part of the animal and should be 
well developed. Such a development is found in hogs with 
long, deep bodies and light hams. In general appearance, 
bacon hogs are narrow in the back, long in body, light in 
shoulder and neck, and lean in flesh. The Tamworth and 
Large Yorkshire are the best representatives of this type. 
The Tamworth is red in color, varying from light to dark. 
It has a long, level back, long snout, long legs, and deep sides. 
The Yorkshire is white; its conformation is similar to the 
Tamworth except that the back is arched instead of 
straight. 

Lard type. — The characteristics of this type are a com- 
pact form, short body, short wide neck, a broad back, deep 
sides, full hams, and short legs. The common breeds are 
Poland China, Berkeshire, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, and 
Hampshire. 

Poland China. — An animal of this breed presents all of 
the essential characteristics of the lard type. The chief 
distinguishing points are black color with six white markings 
— face, feet, and tip of tail; straight face, and drooping ears. 
It gains weight rapidly, frequently weighing 200 pounds at 
six months of age. The size of the Utter is often small. In 
this respect the breed ranks low in comparison with others. 

The large- type Poland China is a strain of this breed that 
seems to be gaining favor. It is more prolific than the stand- 
ard breed, and it is claimed by many farmers to be superior 
in other ways. 

Berkeshire. — Hogs of this breed are somewhat larger than 
Poland Chinas but are similar in some other respects. The 
color and markings are the same, but the face is sharply 
dished, and the ears are erect or inclined forward. The 
flesh is lean fat — small in proportion. For this reason it 



HOG PRODUCTION 



265 



produces bacon of excellent quality. The Berkeshire matures 
early and gains weight economically. 

Duroc- Jersey. — This breed is similar in size to the Poland 
China and Berkeshire. The color is cherry red but may 
vary in degree of intensity. The ears are drooped, and the 
face slightly dished. The Htters are generally larger than 
those of the Poland China or Berke- 
shire. This is an important advantage 
of the breed and accounts in part for 
its great popularity. It seems to equal 
other breeds in its ability to mature 
early and to make economical gains in 
weight. 

Chester White. — In conformation, 
its length is about equal to that of the 
Poland China but its depth of body 
is less. Its color is white and the hair 
has a tendency to be wavy. It 
matures early, generally produces 
large Htters, and is an economical 
feeder, being an especially good grazer. 

Hampshire. — This breed has been placed between the lard 
and bacon types. The flesh is similar to that of the Berke- 
shire, of fine quahty, with fat and lean well mixed. Its most 
striking characteristic is a white belt, four to twelve inches 
wide, encircling the body and including the fore legs, while the 
rest of the body is black. Some individuals are entirely black. 

Getting a start. — The foundation herd should be composed 
of individuals that are good representatives of the breed 
desired. Uniformity should be the first consideration. 

Feed lots and shelter. — Hogs should have a chance to 
keep healthy. With this end in view, they should be pro- 




Lard type of hog. 
Berkshire — profile of head. 
(University of Illinois.) 



266 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



vided with well-drained lots not too much shaded, clean 
water, and sanitary houses well Hghted and ventilated, which 
should be kept clean and purified with whitewash and dis- 
infectants. 

Feeding. — When applying the principles of feeding dis- 
cussed in a previous chapter, securing gain in -weight eco- 
nomically must not be lost sight of. The practice of feeding 
corn alone, so much followed in the Corn Belt, ignores the 




Lard type of hog. Duroc-Jersey. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

need of a well-balanced ration and is expensive. The cost of 
producing pork may be lowered materially by using pasture 
and forage crops to supplement grain feed. Clover, alfalfa, 
vetch, soy beans, cowpeas, rye, oats, and rape are excellent 
forage crops for hogs. When non-leguminous crops are used 
for forage, they should be balanced by the use of some protein 
concentrate, such as tankage. If rapid gains are desired, a 
full ration of grain should be fed along with the forage; but 
if the greatest economy is to be practiced, the proportion of 
grain is reduced. 



HOG PRODUCTION 



267 



Grain and other concentrates are usually fed by hand, 
the amount of the ration depending upon the system of 
feeding followed. A method of feeding now being used with 
success by many farmers is to furnish the hogs with a constant 
supply of feed by means of self-feeders. A self-feeder is 
simply a container for concentrates such as corn, tankage, 
etc., and is constructed so as to allow the hog to eat as often 
and as much as it wants. " Hogging down corn "is another 




Lard type of hog. Chester White. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

appHcation of the principle of self-feeding. Two advantages 
are claimed for the use of self feeders; reduction of labor, and 
economy in the use of feed. The following summary of the 
results of some feeding trials makes clear the latter point : 



Number of 
pigs 


Method 


Average 
time, 
days 


A vrage 

daily gain, 

pounds 


A vsrage 
daily feed 
per head, 

pounds 


Average amount 

of feed per 

100 pounds gain, 

pounds 


262 

332 


hand fed 
self fed 


82.2 
68.5 


1.23 
1.92 


5-47 
8.00 


445 
417 



268 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



General care and management. — When hogs have clean, 
comfortable quarters and sufficient feed of the right kind at 




Lard type of hog. Hampshire. (University of Illinois.) 




Judging pigs. Boys' Pig Club. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

regular intervals, their ordinary needs are met, and no further 
attention is necessary. 

When the young pigs arrive some of them are likely to be 



HOG PRODUCTION 269 

lost or injured, particularly if the weather is cold. Such 
losses may often be prevented by providing each sow with a 
brood house and dry bedding, and by seeing that the weak 
pigs are kept warm and receive proper nourishment. 

One of the chief losses in hog raising is caused by hog 
cholera, which is responsible for 90 per cent of all the losses 
by disease. The total yearly loss for the entire country is 
estimated at $30,000,000. 

The danger of hog cholera and other diseases may be 
greatly reduced by providing the animals with clean water 
and clean, well-ventilated, frequently-disinfected quarters. 
If cholera appears, all healthy animals should be removed 
to clean freshly-disinfected quarters, and the old quarters 
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected; the bedding 
and all loose material likely to bear infection should be burned. 
The dead animals should be burned or destroyed by means 
of quick lime, and all places likely to be infected should be 
treated with fresh lime or some other good disinfectant. 

Vaccination seems to be a good insurance against hog 
cholera, but it is not likely to be effective if hogs are kept 
under unsanitary conditions. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
FARM HORSES 

Importance of the horse on the farm. — The horse plays 
an important part in American farming, where efficiency is 
measured by the production per man instead of production 
per acre as in some of the older countries. It is estimated 
that one horse properly directed will do the work of ten men 
and at one-half the expense. The horse and improved imple- 
ments of farming have had much to do with the wonderful 
agricultural production of America. 

The automobile, the tractor, the truck, and power ma- 
chhiery are being used more and more by farmers, but much 
of the farm work will continue to be done with the aid of 
horses. The present difficulty, that of securing farm labor, 
will doubtless increase the value of the horse on the farm, 
for either machinery or horses will be needed for power. 

The number of horses in the United States, according to 
the government estimate of 1918, was 21,563,000. This 
number is 1,133,000 greater than the average for the five- 
year period (1910-1914), and was maintained in spite of the 
very large shipment abroad of horses for army uses. The 
lover of horses need have no fear of their extinction. Doubt- 
less there will be fewer of them seen attached to buggies and 
carriages on city streets and country roads, but they will be 
found on the farm doing the work that no other agent can 
perform so well. 

While it would be of considerable interest in our study of 

270 



FARM HORSES 271 

horses to take up types and breeds in detail, it seems more 
important to confine our attention to those that are regarded 
as the most useful on the farm, and to the essential points in 
the care of farm horses, such as housing, feeding, and treat- 
ment. 

Farm horses. — Work horses have been roughly classified 
as belonging to four general groups, according to the work they 
seem best adapted to perform: i. heavy draft horses useful 




Farm draft horse. Side and hind views, (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

for pulHng very heavy loads; 2. medium and light draft, 
lighter than the heavy draft yet capable of doing heavy 
work (includes nine-tenths of all farm horses); 3. roadsters, 
adapted for drawing light loads with considerable speed; 
4. small horses, known as ponies. 

For farming purposes, only the first and second groups 
need be considered. The roadster has largely given way to 
the automobile, and the pony is of little value for farm use. 

Whether heavy draft or Hght draft horses are the most 



272 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

useful on the farm depends upon the work to be done. Light 
horses cover the ground quickly but are unable to pull heavy 
loads, especially over uneven surfaces or up steep grades. 
Very heavy horses do not work to advantage with Hght loads, 
or on soft ground, as in such operations as harrowing. The 
fact that about nine- tenths of all farm horses are medium, 
or light draft, is an evidence that experience has shown this 
size is best for general farm work. 

In either case, size is not as important as the fact that 
animals should possess certain traits and characteristics. 
They should have a gentle disposition; should be easy to 
handle, with no bad habits such as biting, kicking, stall 
walking, fence jumping and the like; should be sound — 
free from defects decreasing efficiency, such as short wind, 
etc.; should be active rather than sluggish in movement; 
should have a good conformation (includes short neck, 
shoulders sloped sufficiently to form a good collar seat, broad 
and prominent breast, legs well shaped and well placed, feet 
and pasterns sloping but neither stubby nor flat, short back, 
closely set but with well-sprung ribs, and well-developed 
hindquarters) . 

Housing. — Proper housing for horses should include pro- 
vision for ventilation, light, protection from cold and damp- 
ness, comfortable stalls, and means for feeding. A provision 
for good ventilation with freedom from drafts is the most 
important feature of a good stable. A safe rule for ventilation 
is to allow two cubic feet of air space for each pound of live 
weight. High ceilings furnish air space, save floor space, and 
make possible good ventilation and lighting. Windows with 
the sash hung near the middle afford Hght and an easy method 
of ventilation. Light should be admitted from the rear or 
side of stalls, not from the front. 



FARM HORSES 273 

In winter, horses do better when the stable is not kept too 
warm; the walls, therefore, should not be too tightly con- 
structed. Tight walls not only tend to promote too much 
warmth in the stable, but also cause a condensation of 
moisture on the inside. Dry walls, open enough to allow 
air to pass through slowly, are the most satisfactory. 

Stalls should be wide enough to allow grooming and harness- 
ing of the horses. The partition walls should be strong. It 
is especially important to have tight floors which should be 
nearly level, with just enough fall for drainage. A floor with 
a greater fall than one inch in six feet is apt to put too great 
a strain upon the horse's legs. Wood flooring is regarded as 
the best kind if properly constructed. Cement floors are often 
used but they have the disadvantage of becoming slippery. 

The arrangements for feeding should take into consider- 
ation the need for a rather large box for grain, so as to compel 
the animal to eat slowly. A small rack for hay will diminish 
the chance of over-feeding. 

Feeding. — A sharp distinction must be made between 
feeding horses when idle or at light work, and when at heavy 
work. In the former case, a maintenance ration only is 
needed, but additional feed must be supplied to furnish 
energy for heavy work. 

A standard ration for a horse lightly worked, per 1000 
pounds live weight, is: 20 pounds of dry matter, 1.5 pounds 
protein, and 104 pounds of carbohydrates and fats, which 
gives a nutritive ratio of i : 7. A standard ration for a horse 
heavily worked is: 26 pounds of dry matter, 2.5 pounds of 
protein and 14.3 pounds of carbohydrates, which gives a 
nutritive ratio of i : 6. Individual horses will vary in their 
feed requirements, and standard rations should be varied to 
meet such differences. 



274 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Corn and oats are both satisfactory grain feeds for farm 
horses. Feeding trials made at the Agricultural Experiment 
Stations of Ohio, Missouri, and some other States indicate 
that there is both economy and efficiency in using corn. Oats, 
however, have long been considered a standard feed for horses. 




Farm chunk. A mixed breed — draft predominating. Except for 
too great length of body, conformation good. (IlUnois Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



The choice between corn and oats perhaps should be based 
upon relative costs. The practice followed by many farmers 
of mixing the two grains has the advantage of giving variety 
to the feed, and is thought to give better results than either 
grain alone. For roughage, mixed hay composed of timothy 
and clover is very satisfactory. The clover, because of its 
protein content, helps to balance the ration of grain and 



FARM HORSES 275 

timothy; the chief objection is that it is dusty. If the hay 
is well shaken before it is put into the feeding racks, this 
objection will be overcome. The proportion of grain to rough- 
age should be increased according to the amount of work 
done by the horses — the heavier the work, the larger the 
proportion of grain. 

Since the horse has a relatively small stomach, he will 
require feed several times during the day. A good authority 
suggests the following methods for feeding work horses: 
first, one-fourth of the daily ration in the morning some time 
before the horse is put to hard work; another fourth at 
noon; a third fourth at evening after the horse has had time 
to rest and to eat some hay; the final fourth just before 
retiring time. In the second method, the first two feedings 
are the same as above; then after the day's work is over the 
horse may be allowed to eat hay for an hour or so, when the 
remaining half of the day's ration is fed. The hay ration 
should be given about the same time and in about the same 
proportion as the grain ration. 

The proper watering of horses is as important as feeding. 
It is a good practice, during the working season, to let the 
horse drink before he is given his morning meal. He will then 
be less likely to over-indulge and thus interfere with his di- 
gestion. It is a humane practice to give the horse water in 
the middle of each working period, when he is doing hard 
work in warm weather. After coming from work he should 
be watered but should not be given too much, especially if 
his body is very warm; he should then be fed; a thirsty horse 
does not seem to relish his feed. 

Care of farm horses. — When we consider that a consider- 
able part of the cost of raising most farm crops is due to 
horse labor, the importance of taking good care of work 



276 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

horses is apparent. Besides, such faithful workers deserve 
good care and good treatment. 

In addition to housing and feeding, general treatment, 
driving, and grooming are essential matters relating to the 
care of farm horses. 

No other farm animal, with the possible exception of the 
dairy cow, responds so well to kind treatment as the horse. 
Most farmers are well aware of this fact. They are very 
careful in handling their horses and do not abuse them in 
any way. But good treatment means more than freedom 
from abuse. It includes everything that makes for the 
comfort of the horse in his work, such as the use of well- 
fitting collars, bits that do not injure his mouth, a careful 
adjustment of the checkrein, proper methods of hitching to 
the load so as to reduce draft, etc. 

In driving, a horse is controlled almost entirely by means 
of lines and bit. The horse's mouth should be kept sensitive 
so that he may respond readily to the shghtest pull on the 
lines. Therefore, the lines should not be violently jerked or 
pulled. A good driver drives with " a light touch "; he does 
not pull the lines except when necessary and then just enough 
to make the horse understand what is wanted. It is said 
that there are very few good drivers. The fault lies in failing 
to appreciate the fact that the lines and bit are simply a 
means of communication between the driver and the horse. 

A farm horse should be groomed to keep the skin in good 
condition. The legs of the horse should receive careful 
attention. They should be rubbed down vigorously after the 
day's work, especially if they are wet or muddy. Neglect to 
care properly for the legs of a horse may cause them to be- 
come stiff or permanently injured. 

There are many other things that might well be included 



FARM HORSES 277 

in a discussion of the care of farm horses. Enough has been 
given, however, to furnish a basis for further study. In most 
communities there are farmers who treat their horses properly 
and who know how to take care of them. The methods used 
by those farmers will provide much of value and of interest 
for the pupil who is sufhciently interested in horses to want 
to learn. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 

Place of poultry on the farm. — There is, perhaps, no other 
class of farm animals that will thrive under so wide a variety 
of conditions as poultry. This great adaptabihty is shown 
by the fact that some poultry is raised on nearly every farm 
in all parts of the country. Their place on the farm, as with 
the farm garden and farm orchard, is to supply the farm 
home with wholesome food, and, perhaps, to furnish a surplus 
product for sale. 

The attention required by fowls on the farm is small when 
compared with the return they give. The cost of feeding 
may be greatly reduced by utilizing table scraps, milk, grain, 
and other wastes, and in addition, these articles are disposed 
of to advantage. 

Kinds of poultry. — The term poultry includes chickens, 
turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks, and geese, but is used some- 
times to refer to chickens only. Some agricultural bulletins 
and other pubhcations bearing the title " Poultry " have 
their contents devoted exclusively to chickens. The dis- 
cussion of poultry in this chapter will be confined mainly to 
chickens, since they are of greatest importance and since the 
general principles relating to their production will also apply 
to other kinds of poultry. It will be of interest, however, to 
notice briefly some of the feeding habits of each kind of 
poultry. 

278 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 279 

Chickens have a great adaptability to general conditions, 
use a wide range of feeds, and are able to make good use of 
grain and other wastes of the barn lot or kitchen. They 
feed also upon insects, certain kinds of weeds, and weed seeds. 

Turkeys have a wider feeding range than chickens. They 
forage almost entirely for themselves, using insects as their 
main food during their growing period. They require grain 
only when being prepared for the market. 

Guinea fowls prefer to range in thickets and weed patches, 
in this manner making use of wastes not reached by other 
kinds of poultry. 

Ducks and geese not only utilize the wastes of the barn 
lot but also make use of various pasture grasses. For the 
best success in handhng ducks and geese, access to ponds or 
streams is desirable. Pond life, both plant and animal, 
furnishes a supply of food that other farm animals cannot use. 



Raising Chickens on the Farm 

There can hardly be any question as to the desirability of 
keeping chickens on the farm, at least enough to supply the 
needs of the home. The main consideration is how they 
may be raised to the best advantage. The same principles 
must be apphed which are successful in raising other farm 
animals. Careful attention should be given to selection of 
kinds to raise, feeding, housing, hatching, brooding, and 
general care of the flock. 

Kinds to raise. — Two means of selection are employed in 
establishing a flock of chickens on a farm. One is to choose 
a dependable breed of the particular type desired. For 
example, if egg production is to be the chief aim in keeping 
a flock, some breed of the egg-laying type, such as the Leg- 



28o 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



horn, should be chosen. The other is to select individuals, 
that is, from the standpoint of vigor and constitution, for 
some fowls are weak while others are strong. 

Types and breeds. — There are three types, each composed 
of several breeds. A brief description of these types with a 
mention of a few well-known breeds of each type will serve 

to indicate the range of 
selection open to one who 
wishes to estabhsh a flock 
of chickens on a farm. 

Light or egg-laying 
type. — Poultrymen often 
refer to this type as the 
Mediterranean, because it 
originated in this region. 
These fowls correspond to 
the dairy-type of cattle or 
to the wool- type of sheep, 
in the respect that the 
product rather than the 
flesh is of chief importance. 
They produce eggs abun- 
dantly, but are too light 
for meat production. Individuals of this type are small, 
very active, good foragers, and poor sitters. The Leghorn and 
Minorca are good representatives of this type. 

Meat type. — • It is known to poultrymen as the Asiatic 
type, because it originated in Asia. Fowls of this kind corre- 
spond to the meat types of other animals, since their chief 
value lies in the production of meat. They are heavy, sluggish 
in their movements, poor layers, and good sitters. They 
put on flesh readily when well fed, but are not inclined to 




An example of egg-laying type of 
poultry. White Leghorn male. (U.S. 
Dept. of Agriculture.) 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 



281 



do much foraging for themselves. The Brahma and Cochin 
are well-known breeds. 

General purpose type. — This is now generally designated 
as the American type, because it has been developed largely 
in America. Fowls of this t3^e combine to a certain extent 
both egg-laying and meat-producing functions. They do not 
produce as many eggs as 
do those of the light type, 
or develop into as large 
fowls as the meat-produc- 
ing type. Combining, as 
they do, the chief charac- 
teristics of each of the 
other types, and being 
vigorous and adaptable, 
they are found on farms 
more generally than the 
others. Among the best- 
known breeds are the 
Plymouth Rock, Wyan- 
dotte, Orpington, and 
Rhode Island Red. 

Constitution and vig- 
or. — Individuals of any 
t)^e or breed may differ 
greatly. Some are of low vitality, and others are strong and 
vigorous. It is now regarded as much more important for 
an individual to have a strong constitution than to have the 
well-marked characteristics of a particular breed. Vigor and 
strength of constitution have to do with the health and mor- 
tality of the stock, the number of eggs produced, the percen- 
tage of eggs that will hatch, and the health and develop- 
ment of the chicks. 




General purpose type of poultry. 
Barred Plymouth Rock male. (U.S. Dept. 
of Agriculture.) 



282 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Weak fowls, or those of low vitality may be distinguished 
by one or more of the following characteristics: long, thin 
beak and head; long, thin neck; slender body; long thighs 
and shanks. Strong fowls will have these parts well de- 
veloped. A fowl of low vitality is also likely to be inactive 
and droopy, whereas one that is strong and vigorous will be 
active and alert. 

Improvement. — Poultry, like other farm animals, varies 




A contrast in constitutional vigor in same breed. Barred Plymouth 
Rock. 

A. Strong. B. Weak. 

(N. J. Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



in the individual capacity for production. Pure-bred poultry, 
of whatever type desired, can be estabhshed without great 
expense and will usually prove more satisfactory than mixed 
breeds. All types and breeds have been developed by poultry- 
men to a high perfection for breeding purposes. The eggs of 
any type or breed may be obtained from such sources at 
small cost, and hatched on the farm. One cock and several 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 



283 



hens from such a hatching will form sufficient foundation 
stock for a pure-bred flock. When the flock has been es- 
tablished, it can be improved further by selection, particular 
attention being paid to vigor and constitution. 

Grading is another method of improving a breed. It is 
similar to the method for grading a herd of cattle described 
in Chapter XX. For this method a pure-bred cock of the 




Belle of Jersey, a little White Leghorn hen which laid during her 
pullet year 246 eggs and which consumed 40 times her own body 
weight to do this remarkable performance. (N. J. Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station.) 



desired type and breed is necessary. Grading has the ad- 
vantage of making use of the original stock of fowls on the 
farm, but it takes a longer time to secure a pure-bred flock 
of the desired breed. 

What to feed. — The importance of proper attention to 
feeding poultry is indicated in the following statement made 
by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Purdue University 
(Indiana): ' 'Records from commercial and farm flocks have 
shown profits that are being made, and when the methods 



284 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



of management have been analyzed, proper methods of feed- 
ing have proven to be a very important thing to consider 
and know. Many a farm flock has proven unprofitable as 
a business proposition because of poor feeding methods. These 
same flocks have become an asset by simply changing and im- 
proving the ration and the methods of feeding them." 

The general principles of feeding farm animals already 
considered (Chapter XX) apply also to feeding poultry. In 
applying these principles it is necessary to keep in mind the 
objectives in feeding poultry. These are growth, main- 
tenance, production of eggs, and fattening or finishing for 
market. The following standards have been prepared as a 
guide for the first three of these objectives: 



Feed Requirements of Chickens Per Day for each 100 Pounds 
Live Weight 



(Geneva, N. Y., 


State Agricultural Experiment Station^ 






Digestible Nutrients (pounds) 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Birds 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ash 


Growing chicks: 












First two weeks 


2.00 


0.40 


7.20 


0.50 


I to 4 . I 


Two to four weeks 


2.20 


■50 


6.20 


.70 


I to 3 . 4 


Four to six weeks 


2 .00 


.40 


5. 60 


■.60 


I to 3 . 3 


Six to eight weeks 


1 .60 


.40 


4.90 


■50 


I to 3 . 7 


Eight to ten weeks 


1 . 20 


■30 


4.40 


•50 


I to 4.3 


Maintenance : 












Hen, 5 to 7 lbs. 


.40 


. 20 


2.00 


.10 


I to 6 . 2 


3 to 5 lbs. 


•50 


■30 


2-95 


•15 


I to 7 . 4 


Egg production : 












Hen, 5 to 8 lbs. 


•65 


. 20 


2.25 


.20 


I to 4 . 2 


3 to 5 lbs. 


1 .00 


•35 


3-75 


•30 


I to 4 . 6 



It should be remembered in making use of these standards 
that some feeds are better adapted for chickens than others, 
although the amounts of digestible nutrients may appear to 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 285 

be nearly the same. For example, cottonseed meal contains 
a large amount of protein but is digested with difficulty; 
dry alfalfa feeds also are rich in protein but have so much 
crude fiber as to impair digestion. 

In practice, proper nutrients are supplied by grains, mash, 
animal feeds, minerals, succulent feeds, and water. Grains 
supply energy for activity and heat, fat and material for 
yolk of egg. When scattered in litter the chickens are induced 
to take exercise necessary for maintaining health. 

Mash is made by mixing finely ground mill by-products 
such as bran and shorts or middHngs with animal products 
such as meat scraps. It is easily digested and suppHes protein 
for restoring body tissue and for the white of the egg. The 
amount of animal feed used in mash may be reduced when 
sufficient skim milk or buttermilk can be supplied. One hun- 
dred pounds of milk are equivalent to about seven pounds of 
50 per cent meat scraps. 

Some mineral substance rich in lime and phosphates is needed 
to furnish material for bone development in growing chicks 
and for formation of shell of the egg. Grit has no direct 
nutritive value but is necessary to aid the fowls in grinding 
their feed. Sharp sand or ''mica grit" prepared from granite 
is better than limestone grit which is too soft. 

Succulent feeds are important for their tonic effect and their 
influence upon the health of fowls. A small pasture of clover 
or alfalfa will furnish succulent feed except during the colder 
months of the year when sprouted oats, mangels, or cabbage 
may be used. 

The following ration for laying hens recommended by 
Purdue University is a good example of a well-balanced 
combination of nutrients: 



286 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Grain Mash 

lo pounds com 5 pounds bran 

10 pounds wheat 5 pounds shorts 

5 pounds oats 3.5 pounds meat scraps 

25 pounds total 13.5 pounds total 

Economy may be secured by varying the proportions of 
this ration according to market prices; for example, when 
wheat is high in price vary the grain ration by using 18 pounds 
of corn and 7 pounds of oats. 

How to feed. — Having considered the principles of feed- 
ing in some detail it is important to notice how to feed poultry 
to secure the best results. Two things are to be observed; 
the amount of feed should be sufficient and the ingredients 
should have the correct proportion. 

The purpose of feeding, age, and breed of the individuals 
to be fed determine the proportion. If the object of feeding 
is to prepare fowls for the market, a larger proportion of 
carbohydrates and fat in the feed will be necessary. This 
may be secured by using more grain such as corn. If the ob- 
ject of feeding is egg production a large amount of protein will 
be needed. As to age, the older the fowls the greater is the 
tendency to put on weight; consequently the proportion of 
fattening feeds such as carbohydrates should be reduced 
except when finishing the fowls for market. Heavy breeds 
take on weight rapidly; if they are used for egg production 
the proportion of fat-forming feed should be lowered. 

When egg production is the objective fowls should be 
encouraged to eat as much as they will. With healthy fowls 
there should be little difficulty in inducing them to consume 
feed up to their capacity. The real difficulty is to get them to 
use feed in the right proportion since they seem to find grains 
more palatable than mash. 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 287 

The following practice suggested by the poultry depart- 
ment of Cornell University is a good summary of the essen- 
tials of how to feed laying hens: "The fowls should eat about 
one-half as much mash by weight as whole grain. Regulate 
the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light feed- 
ing of grain in the morning and about all they will consume 
at the afternoon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). 
In the case of pullets or fowls in heavy laying, restrict both 
night and morning feeding to induce heavy eating of mash, 
especially in case of hens. This ration should be supplemented 
with beets, T cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other 
succulent feed, unless running on grass covered range. Grit, 
cracked oyster shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all 
times. Green feeds should not be fed in frozen condition. 
All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet, clean, and 
free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently 
occur from disease, due to fowls taking into their bodies, 
through their intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of 
molds." 

Housing. — The proper housing of poultry is often neg- 
lected. The prevailing notion seems to be that any kind of 
a shelter is good enough for chickens. This is far from true, 
for it is quite essential that they should have clean, dry, 
warm, well- ventilated quarters. Plenty of space should be 
provided, the general rule being four square feet of floor space 
for each fowl. A house six by eight feet and seven feet high 
will be large enough for twelve hens. Several houses small 
enough to be readily moved are sometimes more desirable 
than one large one. Plans and details for construction of 
various types of poultry houses may be obtained from the 
poultry department of any state agricultural college or agricul- 
tural experiment station. 



288 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Incubation. — Whether natural or artificial means of 
hatching are employed the object is the same — to secure a 
high percentage of vigorous chicks. The first essential is to 
use eggs of strong hatching qualities, that is, eggs produced 
by active, vigorous, carefully- tended breeding stock. Other 
essentials are correct means for hatching, correct methods of 
operation, and favorable conditions. 

The choice between natural and artificial means of hatch- 
ing depends upon several factors such as personal preference, 
equipment, and size of the flock. In some respects the natural 
method is superior — it is nature's method. With a flock of 
fifty or less this method is more economical than hatching by 
means of an incubator. The chief disadvantages are lack 
of control and the uncertainty of having an adequate number 
of sitting hens when wanted, especially if a large, early hatch 
is desired. The chief advantages of the artificial method are 
control as to time of hatching, ability to secure uniform 
conditions favorable for hatching, and for large flocks, econ- 
omy. The chief disadvantage is the care and attention neces- 
sary for success. Where only a small number of chicks is 
wanted it is sometimes desirable to buy the young chicks 
from a commercial hatchery. 

Natural incubation. — When applying to natural incubation 
the essentials mentioned in a previous paragraph they should 
include choice of the sitting hen, nesting place, and surround- 
ing conditions. 

The sitter should be chosen from general-purpose breeds 
such as Plymouth Rocks. Heavy breeds such as Cochins 
are too clumsy, and fight breeds such as Leghorns are too 
unreliable. 

The nesting site should be a place where the sitting hen 
will not be disturbed and one which will be easily accessible 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 289 

to her as she returns from feeding. The nest should con- 
form in shape to the natural nest made by a hen when she 
steals away to hatch her brood. It is an advantage to have 
the bottom of the nest made of soil in order to preserve its 
shape and to supply a certain amount of moisture to the air 
surrounding the eggs. 

As a final preparation for incubation the nest and hen should 
be dusted with lice powder. 

During the sitting period feed, water, and a dust bath should 
be accessible to the hen. At the end of seven days the eggs 
should be candled, those containing dead germs and the infer- 
tile eggs should be removed. After the chicks are from 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours old they may be removed 
to a coop. 

Artificial incubation. — The efficiency of an incubator de- 
pends largely upon maintaining a uniform temperature at 
the desired degree (103). Four requisites have been suggested 
by Lewis, of the Poultry Department of the New Jersey Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station: "A sensitive, well-built thermo- 
stat; a simple but certain method of transmitting the action 
of the thermostat to the lamp ; arrangements for easy adjust- 
ments or regulation; mechanism that will not get out of order 
with use." 

Directions for setting up, caring for and operating the incu- 
bator are furnished by the makers of the best types and should 
be carefully followed. 

Aside from following these directions attention should be 
given to turning the eggs, ventilation, moisture, testing, 
and care of the newly-hatched chicks. 

In natural incubation the hen frequently turns her eggs. 
The object is to change the position of the germ which rests 
upon the top of the yolk, and to increase the supply of oxygen 



290 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

to the growing embryo. The following rule should be ob- 
served (Lewis): ''Begin turning on the evening of the third 
day, continue this process morning and evening, until the 
evening of the eighteenth or nineteenth day, or until the 
eggs show signs of pipping. Then prepare the machine for 
hatching, and do not remove the tray for any purpose." 

Good ventilation is essential. A current of air should 
constantly move slowly through the incubator. As the method 
of ventilation depends upon the type of incubator it is usually 
a safe practice to follow the directions furnished with the 
machine. 

Evaporation may be controlled by increasing the moisture 
in the incubating room and within the chamber. This may be 
done in several ways such as by frequent sprinkling of the 
walls and floors of the room, by using moisture pans under 
the egg trays, and by frequently sprinkling the eggs with 
warm water. 

The eggs should be tested by means of a candler on the 
seventh day for infertile eggs, dead germs, germs adhering 
to the shell, and cracked eggs, and on the fourteenth day for 
dead germs. 

From the time the eggs begin to pip the incubator should 
be undisturbed. At this time the nursery tray should be in 
place to receive the newly hatched chicks. After hatching 
the chicks may remain from twenty-four to thirty-six hours 
in the nursery tray, and then be removed to the brooder. 

Care of chicks after hatching. — If the chicks are hatched 
in an incubator, a brooder must be employed to take the place 
of the hen. Essentially it is a box in which heat may be main- 
tained and regulated in much the same way as in an incubator. 

The brooder should be clean and the floor covered with 
fine sand over which short cut clover or grass has been scat- 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 291 

tered. The first temperature should be 98° to 100° under 
the hover. After the second week it may be reduced to 94° 
or 96°, and in the fourth week to about 85°. 

If the chicks are hatched by a hen, the hen and chicks 
should be transferred to a brooder coop about sixty hours 
after the hatch. The coop should confine the hen but allow 
a free range for the chicks. It should be sheltered from the 
wind, the floor raised slightly, and covered with sand to keep 
it dry and to aid in cleaning. 

Next to clean, comfortable, well-ventilated quarters the 
most important factor in the care of young chicks is feeding 
to secure growth and maintain health and vigor. The first 
few weeks are a critical period. It is then that the greatest 
losses occur. 

The Poultry Department of Purdue University suggests 
the following ration for young chicks: 

Scratch Grain Dry Mash 

6 lbs. fine cracked corn 2 lbs. bran 

4 lbs. fine cracked wheat 2 lbs. shorts 

2 lbs. "steel cut" oats \ lb. charcoal 

Sour milk or buttermilk — all they will drink. 
Green feed — all they will eat. 

Grit (or sharp sand) and granulated bone before them at all 
times, hopper fed. 

"If milk is not available, 2^ lbs. of fine beef scrap must 
be added to the mash, for rapid and vigorous growth depends 
very largely upon the amount and kind of animal food that 
is fed. 

After the second week the above amounts of scratch grain 
and mash should be consumed in the same length of time. 
The ingredients of the above ration may be varied to suit local 
conditions and feed prices. If wheat and oats, as given above, 



292 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

cannot be obtained, a good commercial chick scratch grain 
may be substituted or the grain ration may be made up 
largely of corn." 

General care of the flock. — If the principles of feeding and 
housing are carried out little further care will ordinarily be 
necessary. The farm provides a good range in which chickens 
may forage for themselves, and they will also get plenty of 
exercise in this way. When confined, as may happen in 
winter, they should be compelled to take exercise. A good 
way to afford exercise for them is to spread straw over the 
ground in the enclosure and scatter grain through it, thereby 
obhging the chickens to do a good deal of hunting and 
scratching. 

The health of the flock is an important matter. The first 
essential is to keep only those individuals showing vigor and 
strength of constitution. With ordinary care, that is, with 
good housing, plenty of feed and water, and proper exercise, 
vigorous fowls are likely to remain healthy. They are, 
however, sometimes troubled by parasites: a little worm 
that causes gapes, and body parasites — lice and mites. 

The disease known as gapes is caused by small worms that 
get into the windpipe of the chick. It is often fatal to young 
chicks, especially if they are weak. As soon as the disease 
appears, all the well chicks should be removed to fresh 
quarters in order to avoid infection. The chicks that are 
affected may each be treated separately. The worms may 
be destroyed by inserting a drop of turpentine into the wind- 
pipe of the chick, by means of a quill; or they may be re- 
moved by twisting a broomstraw or loop of horsehair in the 
windpipe. The soil in the region of the infection should be 
plowed or dug up and then thoroughly limed. 

Lice are especially injurious to young chicks and may also 



POULTRY RAISING ON THE FARM 293 

seriously affect older fowls. Chicks infected with lice must 
be treated separately. The hce may be destroyed by greasing 
the head and body of the chick with a mixture of lard and 
kerosene, or by the use of sodium fluoride. Dust baths 
should be provided so that the hens and chicks may help to 
destroy the lice. Dust smothers the parasites by stopping 
up their breathing pores. 

Mites trouble the fowl at night only. Keeping the housing 
quarters clean and spraying thoroughly and frequently with 
whitewash or with some good insecticide, so that all the places 
harboring the mites will be reached, are effective means of 
control. 

After the breeding season is over, the cocks should be kept 
apart from the hens. The egg production will be as good 
but the eggs will not be fertile, and an infertile egg has better 
keeping qualities than a fertile one. So much loss is oc- 
casioned by spoiled eggs that every precaution should be 
taken to prevent it. Infertile eggs produced in clean nests 
and gathered each day are the least likely to spoil. Dealers 
in eggs are now protecting themselves by candHng all eggs 
that are received, and eggs that show evidence of spoiHng 
are rejected. This loss generally falls upon the producer who 
might avoid the loss with a httle care. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
FARM MANAGEMENT 

What is meant by farm management. — There are two 
aspects to successful farming: production, and the disposal 
of products (which includes other business transactions). 
Production is based upon the proper adjustment of crops to 
soil and climatic conditions, and upon a proper balance 
between farm animals and the feed supplied by the farm. 
The principles underlying production have been considered 
in previous chapters, especially in those on Soil Management, 
Crop Production and in the introductory chapters on Farm 
Animals. 

The business side of farming includes a system of organi- 
zation which correlates production with disposal of products, 
and also includes a system of accounting or of keeping busi- 
ness records of receipts and expenditures. 

Farm management deals with both aspects of farming. 
"It is not enough to raise good crops or to secure large ani- 
mal production; these must be economically secured. This 
is accomplished only when capital and labor are so adjusted 
to existing conditions that maximum yields are obtained at 
the lowest cost. To farm successfully every department 
must be well organized and must be coordinated with others. 
Labor must be fully employed, capital must be well utilized, 
both quantity and quality of products must be secured and 
the products must be well marketed. All these things come 

294 



FARM MANAGEMENT 295 

as a result of close attention to, and a detailed knowledge of, 
the business." 

The real test of good farm management is to provide a 
fair income on the capital invested and a fair return as wages 
to the farmer. The difference between all the receipts and 
all the expenses represents the farm income. The labor 
income, or farmer's wage, is the amount of the income re- 
maining after deducting a reasonable interest charge on the 
investment, say six per cent. 

Example: 

Capital invested $10,000 .00 

Interest at 6 per cent 600 . 00 

Receipts $2500.00 

Expenses 800 . 00 

Farm income $1700.00 

Deduct 6 per cent interest 600 . 00 

Farmer's wage $1100.00 

Many farmers fail to secure more than a small income on 
their investment and receive Kttle return in wages for their 
labor. This condition may result from poor farm manage- 
ment or from the selection of a kind of farming unsuited to 
the particular farming region. 

Types of farming. — When developing a farm organization, 
the type of farming best suited to the locality in which the 
farm is located is the first thing to consider. The chief factors 
concerned are soil and climatic conditions, and market fa- 
cilities. If the kind of farming is not adapted to the soil and 
climate the business is hkely to fail, no matter how well a 
farm is managed. For example, an attempt to raise hogs on 
hilly land may not be successful, however well the farm is 



296 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



GAIN 



ALL 



MIXED 



STOCK 



ZZ 



DAIRY 



^.c 



LOSS 



GRAIN FARMING 



\\\S550n.1 



14200 



FARMING 



FARMING 

1100 

60 



FARMING 

POTASH LZZZ] 



managed, if there is not enough level land to raise corn and 
other feed. On the other hand, the same farm might be 
profitable if sheep, which require less intensive feeding, were 
used; or if climate and soil were favorable, the farm might 
be successfully devoted to fruit raising. Level-land farming 

is seldom successful in hilly 
regions. 

But a farm, under the ' best 
management and with a kind 
of production suited to soil and 
climate, still may not be made 
profitable, if it is devoted to 
perishable products and is remote 
from market. 

Adaptation to soil and cli- 
matic conditions and market 
facilities are conditions for suc- 
cess which must be met in each 
of the three types of farming: 
crop farming, stock farming, and 
special farming. 

Crop farming. — Crop farming 
usually refers to that kind in 
which 50 per cent or more of 
the total farm receipts are de- 
rived from the sale of grain or 
cotton. The effect of crop farming on soil fertility has already 
been pointed out. From a business standpoint, also, it has 
been shown by rehable investigation to be, as a rule, less 
profitable than stock farming. There are exceptions to this 
rule in some places; for instance, the great wheat-growing 
region of the Pacific Coast. But even here there are many 



Diagram showing effect of type 
of farming on store of plant 
food in soil. Figures estimated 
on basis of 160 acres. Gain or 
loss expressed in pounds. (Adapted 
from Vivian: Ohio State Agri- 
cultural College.) 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



297 



places where grain farming might be combined profitably 
with stock farming. 

The business disadvantage of crop farming, as compared 
with stock farming, may be seen by comparing the labor 
income of the two. A farm-management survey of 273 
farms in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, showed the following 
result: The average labor income from 79 crop farms was 
$28; that from 194 stock farms was $755. This difference 
was exceptionally great because the price of corn was 
low during the year the survey was made. But an average 
for a series of years will show that the chances for a large 
labor income are against the crop farmer. There are two 
reasons for this: One is the greater, average profit on crops 
when fed to stock; the other, the larger number of working 
days of the stock farmer as compared with that of the crop 
farmer. 

If crop farming is followed from year to year on the same 
farm, it is absolutely essential that the organic matter of 
the soil be kept up by supplying green manure from such 
plants as rye or legumes and turning it under by deep plow- 
ing. Commercial fertilizers should also be applied to replace 
plant food taken from the soil. Even then it is not likely to 
be successful without appHcation of superior knowledge 
of the principles of crop production and of good farm man- 
agement. 

On a California farm where wheat followed wheat con- 
tinuously, the yield was 15.7 bushels per acre, but where rye 
was turned under by deep plowing and followed by wheat 
the yield was 52.3 bushels. 

If the disadvantages, both from the standpoint of soil 
fertihty and of actual profits, are so great in crop farming, 
the question arises as to why so many farmers follow this 



298 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

type of farming. One answer is that they do not know how 
to farm differently. This is hardly a fair answer although it 
no doubt appHes in some cases. The real explanation is that 
less capital is required for crop farming than for stock farm- 
ing. Here is an advantage, the only advantage perhaps, 
that may be suggested. 

Stock farming. — When engaged in live-stock farming the 
farmer markets his crops largely through farm animals such 
as hogs, sheep, and beef cattle. This type of farming has at 
least three advantages: It affords a means of maintaining 
soil fertility; gives a higher labor income; and provides for 
a good distribution of labor. The chief disadvantages are 
risk of losses due to diseases of animals, and the need of a 
large investment. 

There is always a possibility of losing animals by disease, 
as, for example, the loss of hogs by cholera. But the risks 
may be lessened by observing proper measures for safe- 
guarding the health of animals, or by securing protection 
through insurance. 

The difficulty of obtaining capital is not so great as formerly, 
since the operation of the Rural Credit Act, a national 
banking law which became effective in 1916. It is now 
possible for a farmer to borrow money for the purchase of 
such things as live-stock. In many places it is customary for 
rural banks to give accommodation to farmers for the purchase 
of live-stock, the loan being repaid when the stock is sold. 

Special farming. — Special farming refers to the kinds of 
farming not included in the other two types: Orcharding, 
gardening, dairying, poultry raising, are examples. Many 
kinds of special farming are profitable, but generally require 
especially favorable conditions, such as soil and climate, or 
market advantages. The chief drawback to special farming 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



>99 



ABC 

F G 

D i E 

H 



is that the profits are Hmited to one kind of production. If 
something goes wrong with this production, it is difficult to 
make adjustments so as to prevent losses. In stock farming, 
on the other hand, unfavorable conditions may be met by 
selHng the stock and relying tem- 
porarily on the sale of crops for an 
income. 

Diversified farming. — While 
one of the preceding types is fol- 
lowed as a main line, at the same 
time another type may be em- 
ployed. For example, while dairy- 
ing may be the chief interest of 
the farmer, he may produce also 
certain cash crops, such as pota- 
toes. In this way, his labor may 
be more fully utilized, and possible 
losses due to unforeseen circum- 
stances partly offset. There are 
several combinations that seem to 
be successful, such as stock farm- 
ing and orcharding; wheat farming 
and stock raising; cotton farming 
and dairying; etc. Combinations 
like these require more attention 
to organization and management 
than is necessary for a single type, but they offer greater 
flexibility or more ready adjustment to losses or failures 
occasioned by unsuspected conditions, such as an epidemic 
of disease, very unseasonable weather, poor markets, etc. 

System or organization. — Whatever the type of farming 
followed, it should be systematized and organized, and then 



Plan of arrangement of fields 
on a farm. 

A, B, C, D, E Fields. 

F, G Feed lots. 

H. Farmstead — yard, gar- 
den, orchard, barn lot, etc. 

/. Lane leading to fields. 

Such a plan may be modified 
to apply to farms of various 
sizes and shapes. The essential 
features are convenience to 
fields, shape of fields, and 
economy of fencing. 



300 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

carefully managed so as to carry out the system. The or- 
ganization must take into consideration, first of all, the 
conservation of soil fertihty. For the soil represents capital 
just as much as money invested in the business does, and the 
same care should be taken to maintain it as is exercised in 
maintaining the cash capital invested. Just how the fertility 
of the soil may be kept up will depend upon the application 
of the principles of soil management, already discussed, to 
the type of farming employed. 

In crop farming, it will be by rotation of crops and by the 
use of green manure and commercial fertilizers; in stock 
farming, it will be done by making use of barnyard manure 
and crop rotation; if it is special farming devoted to plant 
production, it will be done by purchasing manure and com- 
mercial fertilizers. The distribution of labor should be made 
in the right proportion over the different crops. In stock 
farming, the proper balance must be maintained between 
crops for feed and animals to be fed. Attention should be 
given to the quality as well as to the quantity of production. 
This refers to the improvement of both plants and animals. 
Good plants and good animals are always more profitable 
than poor ones. The control of plant diseases, weeds and 
insects should be included as part of the system where crops 
are produced. 

The principles underlying the various factors involved in 
farm planning and organization have been presented in the 
preceding chapters. These principles must be kept in mind 
in working out the details of any system. 

System of accounting. — As a basis for successful organi- 
zation and management some record of transactions involving 
receipts and expenditures must be kept. Other kinds of 
business much less complex than the business of farming 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



301 



require detailed records of this sort. Every farmer, as mana- 
ger of his own farm, should employ some system of account- 
ing that will not only keep him informed as to his total profits 
or losses for the year, but also as to such details as the cost 
of, and the return on, various phases of his business, such as 
individual crops, groups of farm animals, etc. It should tell 
him whether or not his cows are paying for their board; 
how much his horses are costing him; and whether his wheat 
is more profitable than some other crop, such as barley, 
oats, etc. 

Requirements of a system of farm accounting. — The 
farmer must usually be his own bookkeeper. For this reason, 
the system he is to use should be simple enough to require 
but little of his time. At the same time it must be accurate 
and complete enough to keep him informed in regard to the 
essentials of his business. 

The following records will usually prove adequate for a 
complete system of farm accounting: inventory; cash re- 
ceived and paid out, in totals and classified; bills owed to 
others or bills payable; bills others owe him or bills receiv- 
able; labor records, including horses and men; feed records; 
production records. The first two in this list are absolutely 
essential to give him a correct interpretation of the farm 
business. The others are useful in locating profitable and 
unprofitable enterprises. 

Inventory. — An inventory is simply a list, giving values 
of everything connected with the farm business. It should 
be taken at least once a year, usually just before the planting 
season begins, in order to show how much has been made or 
lost during the previous year. This refers only to the farm 
as a whole. It does not tell what particular enterprise is 
the most or least profitable. To secure this information 



302 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

special records like feed, labor and production records, are 
necessary. 

The inventory should include every item and its value in 
connection with the farm business. Such materials as feed 
should be weighed or measured to secure accuracy. In 
practice, the entire farm may be gone over systematically 
and the various items listed. The items on this Hst may 
then be classified and entered on the inventory sheet, and 
the value of each written in. The inventory is complete 
when all the items are entered and the sum of their values 
determined. The essential features of an inventory are indi- 
cated in the following example : 

Inventory 1918 1919 

Real estate (farm, etc.) $14,000.00 $14,000.00 

Cattle: 

Dairy 600 . 00 600 . 00 

Beef 2,000.00 2,200.00 

Horses 1,200.00 1,180.00 

Hogs 600.00 770.00 

Poultry 5000 75.00 

Machinery and tools 700.00 675 .00 

Feed 900. bo 1,100.00 

Seed 100.00 150.00 

Other supplies 75-oo 60.00 

Cash 300.00 250.00 

Bills receivable • 500 • 00 i>2oo.oo 

Total investment $21,025.00 $22,260.00 

Bills payable (deduct) • • 400 • 00 

$20,625.00 $22,260.00 

Increase (profits) 1,635.00 

$22,260.00 $22,260.00 

Cash record. — This should include all receipts and ex- 
penditures. When money is received or expended, the amount 



FARM MANAGEMENT 303 

should be entered promptly so as to avoid oversight. The 
best system of cash accounting is one in which two entries 
are made of each cash transaction: one in the column for 
totals; the other in a column provided for the enterprise 
concerned. For example, if $50 is received for a load of 
corn, the amount, $50, will be entered in the first or total 
column, and also in the column devoted to corn. 

There are two kinds of cash records. They are arranged 
in exactly the same way. One is devoted to entries of money 
received and the other to money paid out. At regular inter- 
vals, once a week or once a month, footings should be made 
of totals and of each farm enterprise included in the cash 
record. The sum of all the cash items entered in the various 
columns devoted to farm enterprises should exactly corre- 
spond to the sum of the total column. One serves as a check 
on the other. If they do not correspond, some mistake or 
oversight is indicated. The difference between the total 
sum expended and the total sum received is the cash balance. 
The difference between the two entries, amount received and 
amount spent of a single enterprise, will indicate how the 
enterprise is going, whether at a profit or a loss. 

But in order to determine more accurately the gain or 
loss of a particular enterprise, other records are necessary. 
These records show values other than cash received or paid 
out. For example, corn as an enterprise, should be charged 
with labor and credited with the feed furnished to the live 
stock. When all values including cash are charged against, 
or credited to, an enterprise, the difference between the two 
totals will be the gain or loss of that enterprise. 

Records of this kind may be kept for the most important 
enterprises. They will comprise two sets of entries, one for 
receipts and the other for expenditures. The receipts or 



304 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



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FARM MANAGEMENT 



305 



credits will include all products sold, an inventory of amount 
on hand at end of year, the amount used for feed or saved 
for seed, residue of manure and fertilizer, which may be 
estimated as remaining for the next crop. 

Special farm record and account books have been pre- 
pared by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and by various 
State Agricultural Colleges. Those interested in keeping farm 
records should secure a copy of an approved record book. 

The expenditures or charges will include an inventory of 
the amount of the crop on hand from previous year, manure 
and fertilizer from the preceding crop, manure and fertilizer 
applied to present crop, seed (if bought), and man and horse 
labor. For an accurate and complete cost account of an 
enterprise such items as the use of buildings, land, etc., and 
interest on all costs relating to the enterprise should be 
charged. The following example will show how the entries 

are made : 

Corn Receipts Cr. 



Nov. 


I 


Dec. 


15 
30 
31 



15 T. fodder to cows (a) @ 8.00 
1000 bu. sold, cash (b) @ 1.20 
500 bu. to cows (a) @ 1.20 
Fertilizer residue (estimated) 



Note — a. Should appear also as a charge in acct. with cows. 
b. Should appear also in cash acct. as money received. 



Corn 



Expenditures 



120.00 
1200.00 

600 . 00 

40.00 

1960.00 



Dr. 



Dec. 31 


3 T. fertilizer (a) @ 35.00 
1409 man hrs. (b) @ .35 
1632 horse hrs. (c) @ .15 
8 bu. seed (d) @ 5.00 
Use of land, interest, etc. 


105 . 00 

493-15 

244.80 

40.00 

300.00 

1182.95 



Note. — a. Should appear also in cash acct. as money paid out. 

b. Should appear also as credit item in labor acct. 

c. Should appear also as a credit item in acct. with horses. 

d. Carried over from previous crop and might have been charged here as 

inventory. 



3o6 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



Bills payable and bills receivable. — When there are many- 
business transactions that are not on a cash basis, a record 
of the " bills I owe" and the " bills owed me " should be 
kept. Whenever a bill is paid, the item in the record should 
be so marked. The amount should be entered in the cash 
record at the same time. The following examples will show 
the details of making these records : 

What I owe — Bills Payable 



Date 


Due 


Paid 


Person 


Amount 


Description 


Jan. I 
Feb. 2 


Apr. I 
2 yrs. 




Bank 
J. Jones 


lOOO.OO 

1500.00 


Tobuy cattle, 6% 
10 A. land, 6 % 



What others owe me — Bills Receivable 



Date 


Due 


Paid 


Person 


Amount 


Description 


Jan. I 
" 15 


Mar. I 

" 15 




L. Smith 
J. Henry 


I 500 . 00 
150.00 


Cattle sold, 6% 
I cow, no int. 



Labor records. — If the amount of gain or loss in a par- 
ticular enterprise is to be determined, a labor record must 
be kept, so that the enterprise may be charged with the 
labor expended upon it. The following is a convenient form 

of labor record: 

Labor Record — Corn 



Date 



Apr. I 



Operation 



Plowing: corn, 30 A.; field, 3-horse plow 



Man 
hrs. 


Horse 
hrs. 


Tractor 
hrs. 


9 
8 
6 


27 
24 
18 





FARM MANAGEMENT 



307 



Feed records. — If it is desired to know the cost of feeding 
any kind of farm animals, feed records are necessary. Such 
records consist of entries from time to time, as at the end of 
each month, of the amounts of each kind of feed fed to a 
particular group of farm animals. The following example 
will indicate how such a record may be kept: 



Feed Record 



Date 


Horses Head 


Hogs Head 


Corn 


Hay 


Corn 


Tankage 




Ami. 


Price 


Value 


Ami. 


Price 


Value 


Amt. 


Price 


Value 


Amt. 


Price 


Value 


Jan. 31 
Feb. 28 

Dec. 31 


15 bu. 


.70 


10.50 


2T 


16.00 


32.00 


400 


.70 


280.00 


iT 


90.00 


90.00 



Production record. — Since the value of an animal is 
largely determined by its production, a record of this pro- 
duction will indicate just how valuable the animal may be. 
These records are especially valuable in milk and egg pro- 
duction, for they may show what individuals to keep and 
what ones to weed out, making it possible to improve the 
herd or flock. The production record for milk is a good 



3o8 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

illustration. Milk-record sheets may be obtained from a 
State Agricultural College or State Experiment Station. 
One may be prepared by ruling a large sheet of strong paper 
as indicated in figure of record sheet reproduced on page 

237- 



CHAPTER XXIX 
THE FARM HOME 

Living conditions. — The farm is not merely a place on 
which to make a living. It is, at the same time, a place 
where the farmer and his family Hve — their home. Aside 
from the personal family life that fixes the character of the 
home, there are several material essentials, such as con- 
veniences and comforts, that affect the lives of the family, 
particularly of the women. The farmer's home should possess 
many of the advantages enjoyed in a city or town home. It 
should be convenient, comfortable, sanitary, and attractive. 
Farmers are sometimes tempted to move to a city or town to 
get these things when they may be secured right on the farm. 
It has been estimated that an expenditure of the price of a 
city lot would make a farm home equal in attractiveness to 
a home in the city. In fact this has been done on many 
farms. 

Conveniences. — In the last chapter, attention was called 
to the value of time. This applies quite as well to the farmer's 
wife as it does to him or to the help he hires. Home con- 
veniences have to do with various kinds of equipment that 
save steps and time and make the burden of housekeeping 
easier. This includes arrangement of rooms in the house, 
running water, bathroom and toilet, and especially a kitchen 
with labor-saving devices. 

A rearrangement of the rooms of a house may not always 

309 



3IO 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



be possible. But usually some changes may be made that 
will make the house more convenient. If a new house is to 
be built, there will be no difficulty about a convenient ar- 
rangement. 

Running water for kitchen and bathroom may be provided 
without great expense by the use of a pressure tank located 
in the basement of the house. The equipment for a water 




Floor plan of well-arranged kitchen. (Adapted from cir- 
cular of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



system consists essentially of a large, galvanized iron tank 
connected with the well or cistern by pipes, and a force pump. 
In the absence of a bathroom, sufficient water for use in the 
kitchen may be provided by using a smaller tank installed 
above the sink; or a small pump with a cistern connection 
may be installed at the side of the sink. If there is a supply 
of running water, a kitchen sink is possible, a feature that is 
considered necessary in the kitchen of a city home. 

A good range, a kitchen cabinet, built-in cupboard, and 



THE FARM HOME 311 

a convenient arrangement of the entire equipment of the 
kitchen will relieve the housekeeper of many of her burdens. 
The farmer himself has all the labor-saving machinery and 
equipment he can secure. He is entirely justified in this, but 
the same reasons also justify providing his home with labor- 
saving devices and equipment. It is as important to save 
time and energy in the home as in the fields. 

Comforts. — A home is not only a place in which to hve 
but also one to enjoy. A comfortable home does not need to 
be one of luxury or of elegance. Simple furnishing in good 
taste gives the most pleasure and greatest comfort. Space 
does not permit more than a mention of desirable house 
furnishings. 

Heat, light, and water are the first essentials for a comfort- 
able home. Heating by means of stove, water supplied by 
an outside well or cistern, and light from kerosene lamps are 
common in farm homes. Such an arrangement is an improve- 
ment over that in pioneer times when the fireplace, the 
spring, and tallow candles furnished heat, water and light; 
but it requires much labor that might be saved by supplying 
still more modern conveniences. 

It is generally more expensive and requires more work 
to heat by stoves than by a furnace, and, at the same time, 
it is less satisfactory from the standpoint of comfort. A 
well-installed furnace, distributing the heat uniformly through 
the house, removes the discomfort and perhaps the danger of 
passing from a heated into an unheated room. Besides 
uniformity in heating, good ventilation may be secured at 
the same time by furnace heating. 

Lighting by means of lamps, while fairly satisfactory, 
causes much labor in the care of the lamps. Acetylene gas 
or electricity may now be installed in a farm home at a reason- 



312 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



able initial expense. Afterwards the cost of lighting is slight 
and the labor a trifle. An electric lighting system may be 




Heating by means of hot-air furnace. 
(Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

extended to the barn and other buildings, used also to furnish 
power for pumping water, separating milk, running the 



THE FARM HOME 



313 



washing machine, iron, sewing machine, sweeper and other 
purposes. 

The need of running water for the kitchen has already 
been mentioned. When a house in a town or city is said to 



^poaocDaacxioaaaaaoDa 




Plan showing connection of house drain with septic tank 
and provision for overflow from septic tank into a system of 
open drains. 

have modern improvements, a bathroom and indoor toilet 
are generally referred to. Houses thus equipped are always 
in greater demand and command a higher rental than others. 
It is not a difficult matter to provide these in a farm home. 
Running water and a 




^>i^^^jjiv ' M'if K >'-'J'Jy''>^jy^y'^ 



Diagram of concrete septic tank for 
disposal of sewage from a farm home. 



means for disposal of 
wastes are necessary. The 
same system that furnishes 
water and carries away the 
wastes from the kitchen 
may be used for the bath- 
room and toilet. A water 

heater may be attached either to the kitchen range or to the 
furnace and will supply water not only for the bathtub and 
wash basin, but also for the kitchen. 

Sanitation. — A house should not only be convenient and 
comfortable, but it should be a healthful place in which to 
live. It is well known that many diseases are induced by 



314 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



germs or bacteria. True cleanliness is the kind that removes 
most of the danger of disease from germs. 

Source of infection is not a pleasant subject to consider, 
but it is one on which every one should be informed. Con- 
tamination from the wastes of the human body is a most 




Plan of installation of complete system for disposal of house- 
hold wastes. Distance of septic tank from house should be at 
least fifty feet. (Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



common source of disease. The custom of placing outdoor 
toilets near wells is a dangerous one. The origin of many 
cases of tjrphoid fever has been traced to wells into which 
wastes have entered from toilets. 



THE FARM HOME 315 

One of the best ways to dispose of these wastes, as well as 
of those from the kitchen, is by the use of a septic tank. 
Sewage disposal by this means is based upon the action of 
bacteria on the organic matter which always forms a con- 
siderable part of household wastes. A simple form of septic 
tank consists of two water-tight, underground chambers; 
the first to retain solid matter and scum until they are dis- 
solved, the second to receive liquids from the first chamber 
and discharge them at intervals by means of a siphon. 

A complete outfit including cement tank, vitrified tile set 
with closed joints to convey material to the tank, and porous 
tile set with open joints to conduct the liquids away from 
the tank, may be installed at a moderate cost. 

Making the home attractive. — A home should afford 
pleasure to its occupants. First of all, as already considered, 
it should be made comfortable in such essentials as heat, 
light, and water. Next, it should be made attractive, both 
as to the house and its setting and the interior and furnish- 
ings of the house. 

The site of the farm home is often selected solely because 
of its convenience. Although convenience, with respect to 
accessibility to the farm and to the public highway, is im- 
portant, the healthfulness and attractiveness of the site 
should receive equal consideration. For sanitary reasons 
the building site should first of all be well drained. Situ- 
ations somewhat higher than surrounding areas are better 
drained than those that are low or level. Such a situation 
also makes an attractive setting for the home. It enables 
the house and its surroundings to stand out prominently and 
affords distant views, revealing whatever beauty there may 
be in the surrounding landscape. 

A well-chosen site is only one part of the setting of the 



3i6 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 



farm home. The arrangement of the farm buildings, the 
placing of the house, and the presence of lawn, trees, shrubs, 
and flowers all contribute to the setting. The farm buildings 
should be accessible and so placed as to save steps, but they 
should be in the background, so that they may be screened 




Public HiqbvJon 

A plan of a farmstead illustrating some features suggested in the text. 

from undue prominence by means of trees and shrubs. Since 
the farm orchard and garden to be accessible must be near 
the yard, they may be considered as part of the setting of the 
house. Careful attention should be given to location of 
walks, a matter often neglected around farm homes. All 
parts of the farmstead in frequent use, especially those near 



THE FARM HOME 317 

the house, should be made easily accessible by means of con- 
venient walks. 

The yard is perhaps the most important single feature of 
an attractive setting for a house. The house becomes the 
center of the picture; the lawn, trees, shrubs and flowers 
form the background and frame of the yard. In making such 
plans effective, three fundamental rules of landscape garden- 
ing should be applied : avoid straight lines; leave open spaces ; 
plant shrubs and trees in irregular masses. 

A home, to be attractive, need not be one of luxury or of 
elegance. Simple furnishings that show good taste and are 
well arranged give the most pleasure and the greatest comfort. 
Three easily applied principles need to be observed in furnish- 
ing and arranging furniture in the rooms of a home. 

First, each room will have some predominating feature, 
such as a fireplace, a rug, or piece of furniture that may be 
regarded as the center of interest. The rest of the furnish- 
ings should be subordinated to this feature. For example, 
if the fireplace is the center of interest, the furnishings should 
be so grouped and subordinated as to add to the pleasing 
effects of this feature. 

Second, there should be symmetry or balance in placing 
the furnishings. For example, in a living room the fire- 
place with a picture above the mantle may be balanced by 
having a davenport, or davenport and table placed opposite. 
A large piece of furniture may be balanced by two smaller 
pieces. 

Third, angles formed by one piece of furniture with another 
should be avoided as much as possible. The placing should 
be guided by the lines of the room. For example, a piece of 
furniture set across the corner of a room gives a less pleasing 
effect than if placed in a line with the wall. 



3i8 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

These three principles relate to effective placing and group- 
ing of furnishings. The living room is used merely as an ex- 
ample to illustrate the apphcation of these principles. They 
may be applied to other rooms as well. They also apply, 
with slight modification, to the placing and hanging of 
pictures. 

Color combinations should also receive consideration. 
This refers to floors, woodwork and walls as well as to the 
furnishings. In general, the proper color combinations, or 
values, should present a gradual transition from the floor to 
the ceiling; the floor should be the darkest, next, the walls 
and the ceiHng, the lightest. For example, a light floor and 
a dark rug would make an unpleasant contrast. On the 
other hand, if the floor is stained or painted so as to corre- 
spond to the depth of color of the rug, the two will present 
a pleasing uniformity. 



CHAPTER XXX 
THE RURAL COMMUNITY 

The farmer's first concern must be to make a living, so 
most of the preceding pages have been devoted to that aspect 
of farm hfe which has to do with agriculture in its various 
phases. But the farmer must have a place in which to hve 
— a home, and it should be the best home he can afford. 
Some of the essentials of a comfortable farm home with 
special reference to ease in housekeeping were considered in 
the last chapter. Finally, the farmer must live among other 
people with whom he has interests in common.- He has 
neighbors and should have friends and companions. It 
seems worthwhile, therefore, to conclude the book with a 
chapter devoted to the farmer and his relation to others of 
the community. 

The particular problem of each individual of a rural com- 
munity is to make the most of the relations with others, 
both for the sake of himself and his family and of those with 
whom he may become associated. Moreover, mere partici- 
pation in community affairs, while infinitely better than 
selfish isolation, is not enough. Each individual should 
cooperate with others to make his community or neighbor- 
hood a better place in which to live. Cooperation means 
getting together; Kving to himself, an individual is apt to 
be narrow and one-sided in his views; in a group, he tends 
to become broader minded and to forget his prejudices in a 
wider interest. Singly, an individual's information generally 

319 



320 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

comes to him in fragments, often from a faction that presents 
but half the truth; collectively, or in a group for discussion, 
each one may hear all sides — all the facts. Country people 
need occasions for getting together where affairs of common 
interest may be discussed and acted upon. 

To be effective this cooperative interest must take into 
consideration first, things as they are; second, as they 
should be; third, how they might be changed for the better. 

Though many undesirable conditions in a rural community 
may be recognized generally, they are often accepted as a 
matter of course. Nearly every one may know, for ex- 
ample, that some roads are very good and that some are very 
poor; that the school is lacking in many things actually 
needed; that the influence of the church is less than it should 
be; that the opportunities for social hfe are meager; that means 
for recreation are wanting. If a survey of the conditions in 
any community or neighborhood shows defects, two courses 
are open — to let conditions remain as they are, or to take 
steps to improve them. But if improvements are to be 
made there must be some ideal as to what they should be 
and how they will enrich the Hves affected by them. Here 
the experience of other communities that have solved similar 
problems may be drawn upon. Finally, there must be coop- 
erative effort, following a definite program agreed upon by 
all concerned, to bring about the change. The value of such 
an improvement, however important it may be in itself, 
is not less than the benefit that comes to the people of the 
community who meet together to discuss their common 
problems and work together to solve them. They will come 
to know one another better, to have more regard for one 
another, and will gain the valuable experience necessary for 
the success of other cooperative enterprises. 



THE RURAL COMMUNITY 321 

The relation of the farmer to others of the community 
includes the following fields of activity: business, education, 
rehgion, social affairs, recreation. Rural people, and others 
too, find a common interest in each of these activities and 
they require cooperative effort to be of value to the com- 
munity. 

Business relations. — This group refers to any kind of 
cooperation among farmers for conducting enterprises con- 
cerned with the business of farming. It includes such simple 
forms of cooperation as exchange of labor, such as filhng 
silos, threshing grain, and the like. It also includes larger 
enterprises requiring complete and permanent organization, 
such as cooperative creameries, fruit exchanges and live-stock 
associations. 

All forms of cooperation between, and including, these 
extremes are based upon the principle that a number of 
individuals working as a group, wisely directed, may ac- 
complish more than the same number wdth each one working 
independently. 

The advantage of cooperative effort is being recognized by 
farmers. This is indicated by the fact that in the last thirty 
years cooperative societies have increased from a few thou- 
sand to more than one hundred thousand. These figures 
include only the larger societies. The following examples 
will illustrate the nature and importance of the larger or- 
ganizations: Live-stock shipping associations have been 
maintained successfully in several states of the Middle West. 
By means of these associations, farmers are able to ship, 
advantageously, less than car-load lots of five stock directly 
to the market and receive a profit that would otherwise go 
to a local live-stock buyer. 

Cooperative grain elevators are another example. In 



322 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Minnesota, in 19 16, 270 of these elevators did a business of 
about $24,000,000. In addition to handling grain, most 
elevator associations make cooperative purchases of supplies, 
such as coal, feed, binder twine, etc. 

Real cooperation, in the sense of loyalty of members to 
each other and to the cooperative concern, and good manage- 
ment are necessary for success. The gains made by a small, 
but well-managed enterprise, engaged in jointly by a number 
of farmers in any neighborhood, may make the undertaking 
quite worthwhile; but the experience of working together 
will be worth even more than the profit in dollars and cents. 
It will also encourage the undertaking of larger enterprises. 

The thing* most lacking in securing cooperative effort 
among farmers is leadership. This is now supplied in many 
localities by the county farm agent. While he cannot enter 
actively into any cooperative organization, he is able to 
give much assistance in getting it under way. 

Educational relations. — The need of educational oppor- 
tunities is recognized in most communities The standards 
may not always be high, but there is generally a genuine 
desire to give the children the benefit of such educational 
advantages as the school may afford. The school therefore 
becomes a center of common interest. With this interest as 
a basis, school patrons may be brought together to deal with 
matters affecting the school; for example, to make a campaign 
for better financial support. Organizations composed of 
teachers and parents, such as patrons' clubs and mothers' 
clubs, may not only initiate movements for better facilities, 
but will give the teachers the support and encouragement 
necessary for the best service. 

The school itself should extend its influence beyond its 
four walls into the homes of the community. Much of the 



THE RURAL COMMUNITY 323 

regular school work may be made to relate itself to the 
problems of the farm and home. Many country schools now 
include in their work such assistance to patrons as corn- 
germination tests, Babcock tests for butter fat, fertilizer 
estimates, milk records, and home projects, such as canning, 
garment making, gardening and similar activities. 

We have here a suggestion well worthwhile: The parents 
and others in the community should cooperate with one 
another and with the teacher for the best interest of the pupils; 
and the pupils should cooperate in their school work or under 
the direction of the teacher in helping solve some of the 
problems that arise on the farm and in the homes. 

Church relations. — Little need be said of the importance 
of church relations, except to point out the desirabihty of 
making the most of them. The church affords an opportunity 
for landowner, tenant and hired help to meet on a common 
basis. It already has its organization and leader, the pastor. 
It also has for its guidance the highest ideals of fellowship 
and cooperation. But the organization, leadership, and ideals 
must affect the community through the church members. 
This means more than mere belief in the church or attendance 
only. It means active partidpation, not only in church 
matters but in all that pertains to the welfare of the com- 
munity. 

Social relations. — In general, social relations include the 
various forms of intercourse where individuals meet one 
another. They may be casual, as on the road, in the store, or 
at church. Even a business transaction may have in it ele- 
ments of a social nature. In these examples the social features 
are more or less incidental. 

There are other ways in which people come into contact 
with one another where enjoyment of fellowship predominates, 



324 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

as in church socials, farmers' clubs, school entertainments 
picnics and the like. 

The very nature-of farm hfe tends toward isolation. Homes 
are far apart. Farm work itself deals with nature rather 
than people. There are few occasions or opportunities for 
extended acquaintance with people. Rural Hfe is especially 
lacking in adequate social interests for boys and girls who 
are passing from childhood to maturity. Yet contact with 
others is quite as important for the farmer and his family as 
it is for the city dweller and his family. Human intercourse 
— making acquaintances and friends — is too valuable an 
experience to be left out of Hfe. 

How to secure adequate social life is a difficult problem 
for most rural communities. A partial solution has already 
been suggested. It lies in the fullest cooperation and in the 
use of all existing agencies, such as business organizations, 
schools, churches, clubs and the hke, to furnish occasions for 
social intercourse. The value of having an occasion for getting 
together is well illustrated by the influence of the Red Cross 
Society. During the Great War branches of this society 
were organized in most rural communities. People came 
together who never before had found a common interest. 
The members did a fine, patriotic service, but they also 
learned how to work in harmony and to know and appreciate 
each other; they made the beginnings of real friendship. 

One of the best agencies for the promotion of social Hfe 
in rural communities is the farmers' club. In general, its 
object is to promote the interests of the community whenever 
there may be need for united action. The meetings are 
occasions for getting acquainted and encouraging sociability, 
as well as for purposeful activity. iM 

Recreation. — The need of wholesome recreation, es- 



THE RURAL COMMUNITY 325 

pecially for children and young people, has been very gener- 
ally recognized in cities. Playgrounds and recreation centers 
for both children and adults are organized in most cities and 
are rendering a splendid service. 

'; One of the lessons of the Great War is that of emphasiz- 
ing the importance of recreation. An outstanding feature of 
the cantonments where many thousands of soldiers were 
trained was the provision for recreation. Perhaps no other 
one thing, aside from actual mihtary training itself, con- 
tributed so largely to the efficiency of our soldiers as par- 
ticipation in the various forms of recreation afforded at the 
camps. 

It is hardly necessary to point out the value of recreation 
for people who live on farms. Play and relaxation are just 
as much needed by them as by other people. 

Fortunately, it is now possible in most rural communities 
to develop organized recreation. There are several agencies 
through which it may be developed, such as the school, the 
church and Sunday school, the rural Y. M. C. A., the Boy 
Scouts and the Campfire Girls, clubs, and social organizations. 

Recreational activities that have been successful in rural 
communities may be included in four groups: first, those 
that are suggested by the open country itself, such as fishing, 
camping, tramping, winter sports, cooperative farm work, such 
as husking bees, etc.; second, those furnished by the school, 
church, and such organizations as the Boy Scouts, Campfire 
Girls, and rural Y. M. C. A.; third, playground activities 
with supervised play, games and athletics; fourth, community 
activities such as festivals, pageants, athletic field-days, play- 
picnics, and the like. 

Leadership and full participation are necessary for success 
in any of these activities. Arrangements must be made for 



326 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

individuals of all ages to take part. The teacher and pupils 
of a rural school could easily undertake to initiate recreational 
activities in any community. Details and plans for introduc- 
ing various forms of recreation may be obtained from the 
Extension Department of the State Agricultural College; the 
State Secretary of Rural Y. M. C. A.; the State Ofifice of 
PubHc Instruction; the Country Life Commission of the 
Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, New 
York City; and from the Playground and Recreation Asso- 
ciation of America, Metropolitan Building, New York City. 



APPENDIX 

PART I 
REFERENCES 

The following list of references will supplement the various phases of subject 
matter presented in the text. As many of them as possible should be in the 
school library for the use of teacher and pupils. 

The pamphlets may be obtained, with few exceptions, free of cost. Requests 
for pubHcations of the United States Department of Agriculture should be 
addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. It is not neces- 
sary to write the title in the request but it is important to give the number of 
the bulletin or circular and the class to which it belongs, for example, Farmers' 
Bulletin, No. 77; Yearbook Separate, No. 637; Department Bulletin, No. 78. 

Bulletins and circulars published by various State Agricultural Experiment 
Stations and State Departments of Agriculture may usually be obtained with- 
out expense. In the list of these references the address of the station or state 
department of each is given. 

Books 

Rural Science Reader, S. B. McCready. New York: D. C. Heath and Co. 
The Teaching of Agriculture, A. W. Nolan. Boston: Houghton Mififlin Co. 
The Botany of Crop Plants, W. W. Robbins. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's 

Sons Co. 
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell. Boston: Ginn and Co. 
Elementary Studies in Botany, J. M. Coulter, New York: D. Appleton and Co. 
First Principles of Soil Fertility, Alfred Vivian. New York : Orange Judd Co. 
Soils and Fertilizers, T. Lyttleton. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Agricultural Bacteriology, H. W. Conn. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Sons Co. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. New York: The Macmillan Co. 

327 



328 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt. New York: Orange Judd Co. 
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt. New York: Orange Judd Co. 
Manual of Gardening, L. H. Bailey. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Garden Crops — Production and Preservation, L. S. Ivins. Chicago: Rand, 

McNally and Co. 
Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailey. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Plant Breeding, Bailey and Gilbert. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Weeds of the Farm and Garden, L. H. Pammel. New York: Orange Judd Co. 
Injurious Insects — How to Recognize and Control Them, W. C. O'Kane. New 

York: The Macmillan Co. 
Birds in Their Relation to Man, Weed and Dearborn. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- 

pincott Co. 
Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, F. W. Woll. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- 

pincott Co. 
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. Boston: Ginn and Co. 
Dairy Farming, Eckles and Warren. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Sheep Feeding and Farm Management, D. H. Doane. Boston: Ginn and Co. 
Swiiie in America, F. D. Coburn. New York: Orange Judd Co. 
The Horse, I. P. Roberts. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Manual of Farm Animals, M. W. Harper. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, J. H. Robinson. Boston: Ginn 

and Co. 
Farm Management, Andrew Boss. Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan. 
Equipment for the Farm and the Farmstead, H. C. Ramsower. Boston: Ginn 

and Co. 
Home and Community Hygiene, J. Broadhurst. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- 

pincott Co. 
Agricultural Economics, E. G. Nourse. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities , J . K . Hart. New York : 

The Macmillan Co. 
The Rural Teacher and His Work, H. W. Foght. New York : The Macmillan Co. 
Social Games and Group Dances Suitable for Country and Social Use, Elsom and 

Trilling. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 
Play and Recreation for the Open Country, H. S. Curtis. Boston: Ginn and Co. 
Recreation and the Church, H. W. Gates. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 



REFERENCES 329 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture 

Tile Drainage on the Farm. No. 524 

Handling Barnyard Manure in Eastern Pennsylvania. No. 978 

The Principles of the Liming of Soils. No. 921 

Crop Systems for Arkansas. No. 1000 

Corn Cultivation. No. 414 

Corn Growing under Droughty Conditions. No. 773 

Control of the Root, Stalk and Ear Rot Diseases of Corn. No. 11 76 

Production of Good Seed Corn. No. 229 

Better Seed Corn. No. 1175 

The Making and Feeding Silage. 578 

Homemade Silos. No. 589 

Growing Winter Wheat on the Great Plains. No. 894 

Growing Hard Spring Wheat. No. 678 

Spring Oat Production. No. 892 

Barley: Growing the Crop. No. 443 

Winter Barley. No. 518 

Cultivation and Utilization of Barley. No. 968 

Rye Growing in the Southeastern States . No . 894 

Culture of Rye in Eastern Half of United States. No. 756 

Prairie Rice Culture. No. 1092 

Buckwheat. No. 1062 

Forage Crops for the Cotton Region. No. 509 

Meadows for the Northern States. No. 1170 

Alfalfa on Corn-Belt Farms. No. 102 1 

Red Clover. No. 455 

Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. No. 55° 

The Soy Bean: Its Culture and Uses. No. 973 

The Boll- weevil Problem. No. 848 

How Insects Affect the Cotton Plant— Control. No. 890 

Late or Main Crop Potatoes. No. 1064 

Home Supplies Furnished by the Farm. No. 1082 

The Home Vegetable Garden. No. 255 

The Farm Garden in the North. No. 937 



330 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Home Gardening in the South. No. 934 

Producing Family and Farm Supphes on the Cotton Farm. No. 1015 

Control of Diseases and Insect Enemies of the Home Vegetable Garden. No. 856 

Home Canning Fruits and Vegetables. No. 853 

Home Storage of Vegetables. No. 879 

Farm and Home Drying of Fruit and Vegetables. No. 984 

Growing Fruit for Home Use. No. looi 

Profitable Management of the Small Apple Orchard on the General Farm. 

No. 491 
Growing Peaches. No. 917 
Pruning:. No. 181 
Information for Fruit Growers about Insecticides, Spraying Apparatus, and 

Important Insect Pests. No. 908 
Good Seed Potatoes and How to Grow Them. No. 533 
Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and the Rural School. No. 428 
How to Increase the Potato Crop by Spraying. No. 868 
Weeds and How to Control Them. No. 660 

How to Detect Outbreaks of Insects and Save the Grain Crop. No. 835 
Common White Grubs. No. 940 

Grasshopper Control in Relation to Cereal and Forage Crops. No. 747 
Cutworms and Their Control in Corn and Other Cereal Crops. No. 739 
True Army Worm and Its Control. No. 731 
Wireworms Destructive to Cereal and Forage Crops. No. 725 
The Larger Corn-stalk Borer. No. 1025 
BoUworm or Corn Earworm. No. 872 
Chinch Bug. No. 657 
The Hessian Fly. No. 1083 

Corn-root Aphis and Methods of Controlling It. No. 891 
The Wheat Jointworm and Its Control. No. 1006 

Aphids Injurious to Orchard Fruits, Currant, Gooseberry and Grape. No. 804 
Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. No. 630 
Common Birds in Relation to Man. No. 497 
How to Attract Birds in the East Central States. No. 912 
How to Attract Birds in the Middle Atlantic States. No. 844 
Bird Houses and How to Build Them. No. 609 



REFERENCES 331 

Essentials of Animal Breeding. No. 1167 

The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values. 

No. 346 
Breeds of Beef Cattle. No. 612 
Growing Beef on the Farm. No. 1073 
Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt. No. 588 
Cotton-seed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle. No. 655 
Judging Beef Cattle. No. 1068 
Breeds of Dairy Cattle. No. 893 
The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. No. 413 
Clean Milk; Production and Handling. No. 602 
Cooling Milk and Cream on the Farm. No. 976 
Straining Milk. No. 1019 
Bacteria in Milk. No, 490 
Making Butter on the Farm. No. 876 
Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. No. 576 
Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. No. 840 
Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. No. 810 
Breeds of Swine. No. 765 
A Corn-belt Farming System Which Saves Labor by Hogging Sown Crops. 

No. 614 
The Self-feeder for Hogs. No. 906 
Breeds of Draft Horses. No. 619 
Feeding Horses. No. 1030 
How to Select a Sound Horse. No. 779 
'Standard Varieties of Chickens. Nos. 806 and 1052 
Illustrated Poultry Primer. No. 1040 

Bulletins for Beginners in Poultry Raising. Nos. 1105-1116 
Poultry Management. No. 287 
Hints to Poultry Raisers. No. 528 
Natural and Artificial Incubation. No. 585 
Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens. No. 624 
Feeding Hens for Egg Production. No. 1067 
Important Poultry Diseases. No. 957 
Mites and Lice on Poultry. No. 801 



332 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Selecting a Farm. No. 1088 

Farm Bookkeeping. No. 511 

A System of Farm Cost Accounting. No. 572 

A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business. No. 1139 

The Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts. No. 782 

Farm Household Accounts. No. 964 

Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms. No. 745 

Better Use of Man Labor on the Farm. No. 989 

Care and Repair of Farm Implements. No. 1036 

Modern Conveniences for Farm Homes. No. 270 

Beautifying the Home Grounds. No. 185 

Beautifying the Farmstead. No: 1087 

Planning the Farmstead. No. 1132 

Cooperative Live-stock Shipping Associations. No. 718 

Cooperative Marketing. No. 1144 

The Community Fair. No. 870 

Departivient Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Lessons on Potatoes for Elementary Rural Schools. No. 784 
The Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow. No. 49 
Lessons on Dairying for Rural Schools. No. 1763 

Judging Sheep as a Subject of Instruction in Secondary Schools. No. 593 
The Management of Sheep on the Farm. No. 20 
Lessons on Pork Production for Elementary Rural Schools. No. 646 
Cooperative Organization Business Methods. No. 178 
Rural Community Buildings in U. . No. 825 
Water Supply, Plumbing and Sewage Disposal for Country Homes. No. 57 

Yearbook Separates, U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Function and Value of Soil Bacteria. No. 507 . 
Federal Protection of Migratory Birds. No. 785 
The Relation Between Birds and Insects. No. 486 
Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruits. No. 504 
Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? No. 443 , 
Cooperative Marketing, and Financing of Marketing Associations. No. 62,7 
Comforts and Conveniences for Farm Homes. No. 518 



REFERENCES 333 

Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture 

Maintenance Rations for Farm Animals. Bui. No. 143 

Records of Dairy Cows, Their Value and Importance in Economic Milk Pro- 
duction. Cir. No. 103 
A Plan for a Small Dairy House. Cir. No. 195 
Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. Cir. No. 170 
Stomach Worms in Sheep. Cir. No. 102 

State Agricultural Experiment Stations, and Departments 
OF Agriculture 

The Roots of Plants. Bui. No. 127. Manhattan, Kan.: State Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

Soil Moisture and Tillage for Corn. Bui. No. 181. Urbana, 111.: Stite Ag- 
ricultural Experiment Station 

Barnyard Manure. Bui. No. 246. Wooster, Ohio: State Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station 

Potassium from the Soil. Bui. No. 182. Urbana, 111.: State Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

Production and Care of Barnyard Manure. Bui. No. 210. Harrisburg, Pa.: 
State Department of Agriculture 

Ground Limestone for Acid Soils. Cir. no. Urbana, 111.: State Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

Raw Phosphate Rock as a Fertilizer. Bui. 305. Wooster, Ohio: State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station 

Maintenance of Soil Fertility. Bui. No. 336. Wooster, Ohio: State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station 

Some Fundamental Principles in Fertility Maintenance. Bui. No, 210. Harris- 
burg, Pa.: State Department of Agriculture 

Illinois System of Permanent Fertihty. Cir. 167; Urbana, 111.: State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station 

The Silo and Its Use. Bui. No. 133. Columbia, Mo.: State Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

Filling Silos. Cir. No. 53. Manhattan, Kan.: State Agricultural Experiment 
Station 



334 PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Smut of Grain and Forage Crops, Bui. No. 200. Manhattan, Kan.: State 

Agricultural Experiment Station 
A Brief Handbook of the Diseases of Plants in Ohio. Bui. No. 214. Wooster, 

Ohio: State Agricultural Experiment Station 
Some Ohio Birds. Bui. No. 250. Wooster, Ohio : State Agricultural Experiment 

Station 
Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Bui. No. 321. Ithaca, N. Y.: State 

Agricultural Experiment Station 
Corn Silage the Keystone of Economical Cattle Feeding. Bui. No. 235. 

Lafayette, Ind.: State Agricultural Experiment Station 
Dairy Barn and Milk House Arrangement. Cir. No. 6, 1919. Lincoln, Neb.: 

State Agricultural Experiment Station 
Cow vs. Cows. Cir. No. 118. Urbana, 111.: State Agricultural Experiment 

Station 
Livestock Farming vs. Grain Farming. Bui. No. 328. Wooster, Ohio: State 

Agricultural Experiment Station 
Septic Tanks and Absorptive Systems. Bui. No. 100. Corvallis, Ore.: State 

Agricultural Experiment Station 
Sewage Disposal for Country Homes. Cir. No. 60. Madison, Wis.: State 

Agricultural Experiment Station 
Model Farm Homes. Bui. 52. St. Paul, Minn.: State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station 
The Farm House. Bui. No. 241. Harrisburg, Pa.: State Department of 

Agriculture 
Rural Clubs in Wisconsin. Bui. No. 271. Madison, Wis.: State Agricultural 

Experiment Station 
The Country Church, an Economic and Social Force. Bui. No. 278. Madison, 

Wis.: State Agricultural Experiment Station 
Play Days in Rural Schools. Cir. No. 118. Madison, Wis.: State Agricultural 

Experiment Station 
Rural Relations of High Schools. Bui. No. 288. Madison, Wis.: State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station 
Cooperation in Wisconsin. Bui. No. 282. Madison, Wis.: State Agricultural 

Experiment Station 



PART II 

Digestible Nutrients in loo Pounds of Common Feeding Stuffs 



KIND OF FEED 



Roughage 

Corn fodder with ears on 

Corn fodder, ears removed 

Corn silage 

Hay from mixed grasses 

Kentucky blue grass 

Red clover 

Soybean hay 

Cowpea hay 

Alfalfa 

Hairy vetch 

Velvet bean 

Mixed grasses and clover 

Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Flint corn 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Standard wheat middlings (shorts) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Ground oats 

Oat middhngs 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Kafir corn 

Linseed meal (old process) 

Linseed meal (new process) 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed meal 

Cotton seed hulls 

Dried brewers' grains 

Dried distillers' grains 

Dried beet pulp 

Sugar beet molasses 



Dry 
Matter 



89.4 
7 
85 
84 
90 
90 



88 



91 



Digestible Nutrients 



Crude 
Protein 



2-5 
1.4 
1.4 

4.2 

4-4 

71 

10.6 

9.2 

10.5 

II. 9 

9.6 

5-8 



7-8 
8.0 
6.1 

4-4 

21.3 

29.7 

13.0 

II. 9 

9.6 

9-5 

8.4 

8.8 

10. 1 

131 
16.8 
29. 1 
5-2 
30.2 

31-5 
12.5 
37-6 

0.3 

20.0 

32.8 

4.1 

4-7 



Carbo- 
hydrate 



Fat 



I. 
O. 
O. 
I . 

o. 
I.» 

1.2 

1-3 
0.9 
1.6 
1.4 
1-3 



4-3 
4-3 
3-5 
2.9 
2.9 
6.1 
4-5 
2.5 
1.9 
1 . 2 
1.6 
4-3 
3-7 
6.5 
I.I 



335 



PART III 
FEEDING STANDARDS 

Daily Requirements for iooo Pounds Live Weight 
(Adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding) 



Horses, lightly worked. . . . 
Horses, moderately worked 
Horses, heavily worked. . . 
Cattle, fattening, first 

period 

Cattle, fattening, second 

period 

Cattle, fattening, finishing 

period 

Sheep, coarse wool 

Sheep, fine wool 

Ewes with lambs 

Sheep, fattening, first 

period 

Sheep, fattening, second 

period 

Brood sows 

Hogs, fattening, first period 
Hogs, fattening, second 

period 

Hogs, fattening, finishing 

period 



Dry 
Matter 




Protein 


Pounds 
20 
24 
26 


Pounds 

1-5 
2.0 

2-5 


30 


2-5 


30 


30 


26 
20 
23 
25 


2.7 

I . 2 

1-5 
2.9 


30 


30 


28 
22 
36 


35 

2-5 

4-5 


32 


4.0 


25 


2.7 



Digestible 



Carbohydrates 
and fat (x 2.25) 



Pounds 
10.4 
12.4 
151 

16. 1 

16. 1 

16.6 
II .0 
12.7 
16. 1 

16. 1 



159 
16.4 
26.6 



25 I 
18.9 



Total 



Pounds 
II. 9 
14.4 
17.6 

18.6 

19. 1 

193 
12.2 
14. 2 
19.0 

19. 1 

19.4 
18.9 
31.6 

29.1 

21 .6 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



1:6.9 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

1:6.4 

1:54 

1:6.1 
1:9.2 
1:8.5 
1:5-6 

1:54 

1:45 
1:6.6 

1:59 
1:6.3 
1:6.3 



336 



PART IV 

SPRAYING PROGRAM 

(From Ohio State Agricultural Experiment Station. Although prepared 
for Ohio this program has very general application) 

Apple 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


When leaf buds 
show green be- 


Lime-sulphur (33° Beaume) — i part 
Water — 7 parts 


Scale 




Aphis eggs 




fore leaves ap- 


Or — Miscible oil — i part 


Mites eggs 




pear 


Water — 15 parts 








Or — Powdered lime-sulphur, 15 pounds 








in 50 gallons of water 








Or — Soluble sulphur 12^ pounds to 50 




















When cluster buds 
show pink be- 


Bordeaux mixture (3-S-S0), if canker worms 
(measuring worms) are present add arsenate 


Black rot 




Apple scab 




fore blossoms 


of lead li pounds powder (2I paste) to 50 


Canker worms 




open 


gallons of spray. If aphids are numerous 


Aphis 






add nicotine sulphate i pint to 100 gallons 


















3 


Just after petals 
fall 


Lime-sulphur i^ gallons plus arsenate of 
lead I pound powder (2 pounds paste) to 


Aphis 




Apple scab 






50 gallons of water. If aphids are numer- 


Sooty fungus 






ous add nicotine sulphate i pint to 100 


Curculio 






gallons of spray 


Codling moth 








Canker worms 


4 


14 days after 


Bordeaux mixture (s-5-50) for blotch 


Apple blotch 




spray No. 3 . . . 


Or — If blotch is not present, lime-sulphur 


Codling moth 






I J gallons plus arsenate of lead i pound 


Curculio 






powder (2 pounds paste) to 50 gallons of 








water. Use Bordeaux mixture instead of 








lime-sulphur on Ben Davis, Gano, Smith 








Cider, Mann, Rome Beauty, Missouri 








Pippin, Red Astrachan, Maiden Blush, 








York Imperial, Oldenburg, Stark and N. W. 








Greening varieties, all these being specially 








susceptible to blotch 










* Special 
blotch 




RnrHpaiiY miYfiire (i-ti-Kn) .... 


Blotch 


spray No. 4 if 






sprays . 


blotch is seri- 
ous. Again 4 
weeks after 
spray No. 4 (6 
weeks after 
petals fall) if 
blotch is very 
serious 








9-10 weeks after 
spray No. 3 


Bordeaux mixture (3-S-S0) plus arsenate of 
lead I pound powder (2 pounds paste) to 


Black rot 




Bitter rot 




(July I to 20) . . 




Apple blotch 






Codling moth 



* Special sprays are not numbered as they are not part of the customary program but are 
supplementary sprays for emergency conditions. 

337 



338 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Pear and Quince 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


When leaf buds 
show green be- 
fore leaves ap- 


Or — Lime-sulphur liquid — i part 
Water — 7 parts 
Or — Miscible oil — i part 
Water — 15 parts 

Or — Powdered lime-sulphur, 15 pounds 
in 50 gallons of water 


Scale 




Aphis eggs 
Mites eggs 
Scab 
















Soon as petals 
fall 


Lime -sulphur liquid i^ gallons, water 50 
gallons, plus arsenate of lead powder i 
pound (2 pounds paste) 

Or — Bordeau.x mixture (3-S-50) plus arsenate 
of lead powder, i pound (2 pounds paste) 
Or — Lime-sulphur powder 2 pounds in 50 
gallons water, plus arsenate of lead powder 
I pound (2 pounds paste) ... . 


Codling moth 

Pear slug 

Scab 

Sooty fungus 

Leaf-spot 














^ 


9 to lo weeks 
after No. 2 
(July 15--AU- 
gust i) 


Lime-sulphur ij gallons, plus arsenate of 
lead powder i pound (2 pounds paste) to 
50 gallons of water. 

Or — Bordeaux mixture (3-5-50) plus arsenate 
of lead powder i pound (2 pounds paste) 
to so gallons of water 


Second brood 




codling worm 
Scab 
Leaf-spot 



Peach 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


In fall after 
leaves drop, on 
favorable win- 
ter days above 
50° F. in Feb- 
ruary or March 
or any time 
before the buds 
begin to swell. 
After buds are 
swollen it is 
too late to con- 
trol leaf curl . . 


Lime-sulphur solution i part, water 7 parts 
Or — Hom.e-boiled lime-sulphur (15-15-50) 
Or — Powder lime-sulphur 15 pounds to 

50 gallons 
Or — Soluble sulphur i2§ pounds to 50 gallons 


Scale insects 




Peach leaf curl 




After bloom has 
fallen when 
husks on young 
fruit are shed- 
ding 


Self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) plus i\ 
pounds arsenate of lead powder (2^ pounds 
paste) in each 50 gallons of spray 


Curculio 




Scab 
Brown rot 




2 weeks after 
spray No. 2 . . . 


(Same as No. 2) 


(Same as No. 2) 










3 weeks after 
spray No. 3- ■ • 


Self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) 


Brown rot 






Scab 




3 to 4 weeks 
after spray 
No. 4 on late 
varieties if 
brown rot is 
prevalent 




Brown rot 









SPRAYING PROGRAM 

Plum 



339 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


In late fall after 
leaves have 
fallen, on fa- 
vorable winter 
days above 50° 
F. in Feb. or 
March, or in 
spring before 
leaves appear . . 


Lime-sulphur solution i part, water 7 parts 
Or — Home-boiled lime-sulphur (5° Beaume) 
Or — Miscible oil i part, water 15 parts 
Or — Powdered lime -sulphur, 15 pounds to 

50 gallons 
Or — Soluble sulphur, 12^ pounds to 50 gallons. 








2 


When bloom has 
fallen and 
husks are push- 
ing off young 
fruit 


On American and Japanese varieties — 
Self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) plus arse- 
nate of lead powder ij pounds (2^ pounds 
past) 

Or — On European varieties and hybrids — 
Commercial lime-sulphur i gallon to 50 
gallons of water plus arsenate of lead 
powder i^ pounds (2^ pounds paste) 

Or — If curculio is serious, use Bordeaux mix- 
ture (3-5-50) plus 2 pounds arsenate of 
lead powder (4 pounds paste) and add 2 
pounds of dissolved soap to each 50 
gallons of spray as a sticker 


Curculio 




Brown rot 














3 


2 to 3 weeks after 
spray No. 2 . . . 










Brown rot 


4. . 


4 to 5 weeks 
after spray 
No. 2 . 


Same as No. 2, preferring self-boiled lime- 
sulphur (8-8-50) plus arsenate of lead 
powder li pounds (2§ pounds paste) 






Brown rot 



Cherry 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Material to Use 


What For 


J 




Lime-sulphur solution, i part, water 7 parts 
Or — 






drop on favor- 


Brown rot 




able winter 


Home-boiled lime-sulphur brought to 5° 


Leaf-spot or 




days when tem- 


Beaume 


shot-hole 




perature is 


Or — 


fungus 




above 50° F. in 


Miscible oil — i part 






February or 


Water — 15 parts 






March or any 


Or — 






time before the 


Powdered lime-sulphur 15 pounds to 50 






leaves appear. 


gallons of water 






If scale is not 


Or- 






present, the 


Soluble sulphur 12I pounds to 50 gallons 






time when the 


of water. 






buds are swell- 


If scale is not present spray all varieties with 






ing is most fa- 


Bordeaux mixture (3-5-50) for brown rot.. 






vorable to con- 








trol fungous 








diseases 







340 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Cherry — Continued 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Material to Use 


What For 




Just after blos- 
soms fall and 
husks are shed- 
d i ng from 
young fruit. . . . 


On sour varieties concentrated lime-sulphur 
I gallon to 50 of water, or use Bordeaux 
mixture (3-5-50) and add to whichever is 
used ij pounds arsenate lead powder (2^ 
pounds paste). Add nicotine sulphate, i 
pint to 100 gallons of whichever spray is 
used if aphids are numerous. If curculio is 
bad, use Bordeaux (3-5-50) and 2 pounds 
dissolved soap plus 2 pounds arsenate lead 
powder (4 pounds paste). 

On sweet cherries self-boiled lime-sulphur 
(8-8-50) plus arsenate of lead powder i^ 
pounds (2^ pounds paste) to 50 gallons. . . . 






Aphids 
Cherry slug 
Leaf-spot or 

shot-hole 

fungus 
Brown rot 


3 


2 to 5 weeks after 
spray No. 2 
when fruit be- 
gins to color. 
Very important 
application .... 


Commercial lime-sulphur liquid i to 50 for 

both sweet and sour cherries 
Or — 

Self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) preferred 


Curculio 
Aphids 
Cherry slug 
Leaf-spot or 
shot-hole 






fungus 
Brown rot 


4 


After fruit is 
picked 


Self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) plus arse- 
nate of lead powder i^ pounds (3 pounds 
paste) if slugs are eating leaves 


Leaf-spot 
Slugs 











Grape 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


10 days before 
bloom opens . . . 


Bordeaux (3-5-50) 


Mildew 






Black rot 


2 


3 to 5 days after 
falling of bloom 


Bordeaux (2-3-50) plus arsenate of lead 
powder 15 pounds (3 pounds paste) and 
I pound resin soap for sticker in each 50 
gallons. Use trailer method and pump 
pressure of 175 pounds 


Grape berry 

worm 
Grape root 

worm 
Mildew 
Black rot 
Anthracnose 




3 


When grapes first 
touch in clusters 
about I month 
after bloom 












A. . . 


Omit unless 
worms are very 
numerous. Then 
make applica- 
tion near 20th 
to 25th of July 
when eggs are 
being deposited 
on skins of fruit. 


Arsenate of lead i h pounds powder (3 pounds 
paste) in 50 gallons of water 


Grape berry 
worm 











For all grape sprays use stone lime if obtainable to avoid injury to foliage. The Bordeaux 
formula (2-2-50), stone lime being used, leaves the smallest amount of spray adhering to the 
fruit at harvest. 



SPRAYING PROGRAM 

Currant and Gooseberry 



341 



1 
Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 




While dormant 
in fall, winter 
or spring ...... 


Any of the standard dormant or scale sprays 
recommended in these tables for other 


Scale insects 














When leaves are 
unfolding 




Leaf-spot 






Cane wilt 

Mildew 

Anthracnose 


•2 .... 


Soon after fruit 
is set 


Bordeaux (3-5-50) plus arsenate of lead i^ 
pounds of powder (3 pounds paste). If 
aphids are appearing also add nicotine 
sulphate, i pint to 100 gallons of spray 


Leaf -spot 




Mildew 






Currant 
worms 
Aphids 




2 weeks after 
spray No. 3 if 
worms are pres- 
ent 


Same as for spray No. 3, or hellebore may be 


(Same as No. 3) 




















After fruit is 
picked 




Leaf-spot 


s • 




Anthracnose 



Spray No. 



When to Apply 



When leaves are 
about one-half 
grown, before 
blooming. If the 
beds are young, 
spray i week 
later than the 
old beds 



After fruit is 
picked 



Strawberry 



Materials to Use 



Bordeaux mixture (3-5-50). 



Mow the vines close to the ground and burn 
them on a windy day or remove and burn; 
or spray the new growth with Bordeaux 
(3-5-50). Drouth following such a burnmg 
sometimes prevents a crop the next year. . . 



What For 



Leaf-spot 



Leaf -spot 



342 



PRINCIPLES OF FARM PRACTICE 

Raspberry and Blackberry 



Spray No. 


When to Apply 


Materials to Use 


What For 


I 


When dormant 
in fall, favorable 
days in winter 
or spring 


Any of the standard scale sprays previously 
recommended in these tables 


Scale insects 












2. . ., 


When buds are 
swelling, if pale 
brown beetle, 
Byttirus uni- 
color, is present. . 


Arsenate of lead powder i\ pounds (3 pounds 


Raspberry der- 
mestid, By- 
turus uni- 
color 








When in bloom . . 













INDEX 



Aberdeen- Angus, 228 
Accounting, see Farm accounting 
Acid soil, 44 
Aeration, see Air 

Air, amount in soil, 24; composition 
in soil, 23; how held in soil, 23; 
how supplied to soil, 25; plants' 
need of, 6; relation to plant 
growth, 3 
Alfalfa, 113, 114 
American Merino, 254 
Ammonia, losses of, 30 
Army worm, 181 
Ayrshire, 240 

Animals, farm, how to produce, 205- 
215; kind to keep, 216-219; why 
raise, 201-204; see Farm animals 
Apple diseases: bitter rot, 167; blue 
mold rot, 168; canker, 172; cod- 
ling moth, 186; rust and red cedar, 
165; scab, 165, 171 

Babcock test, 236 

Bacon type, hog, 262 

Bacteria, 24, 27, 32, 35, 44, lOQ, 247, 



250, 251, 314, 315; 



action on milk. 



2^0; — organic matter, 27; 
rock phosphate, 35; — sewage, 315; 
— soil, 24, 27; cause of plant dis- 
eases, 162; denitrifying, 29, 30; 
nitrifying, 28; nitrogen-fixing, 3°, 
31, 32, 109; typhoid, 34 

Barley, distribution map, 103; har- 
vesting, 104; improving, 159; 
production and value, 89; vari- 
eties, 102, 103 

Beef cattle, 220-232, breeds, 225- 
229; and capital, 221; character- 



istics, 222; conformation, 225; 
dressing percentage, 224; feeders, 
231 ; feeding and management, 230; 
feed lots and buildings, 230; kind 
to raise, 222; market demands, 220; 
marketing, 231; production, 220, 
221; raising on farm, 222 
Beef cuts, position of, 221; whole- 
sale, 221; wholesale prices of, 223 
Bees, 107, 108 
Berkshire, 264, 265 
Bills, payable, 306; receivable, ^.- 
Birds, 194-200; appreciation of, 200; 
census of, 197; . as destroyers of 
insects, 195, — of rodents, 195, — 
of weed seeds, 194; food of adult, 
194, — of young, 196; importance 
of, 197; list of insect eaters, 195,— 
of seed eaters, 194, i95; nesting 
sites and food for, 199; popula- 
tion of, 197; relation of trees and 
shrubs to, 198 
Blight, 167, 169, 170 
Boll- weevil, 123 
Boll-worm, 123 
Bordeaux mixture, 128, 165 
Brooder, 290 
Buckwheat, 106, 107; honey, 107; 

production, 89; sowing, 107 
Budding, i45 
Bumble bee, 180 
Burbank, Luther, 152 
Bureau of Plant Industry, 148 
Business, farm, 294, 295, 321 

Cabbage, butterfly, 191; club-root, 
171; maggot, 191; worm, 181, 192, 
yellows, 170 
343 



344 



INDEX 



Calcium, 261; supply, 38; sec Lime 

Canker, 172 

Carbohydrates, 207, 209, 211 

Carbon, i, 2; dioxide, 2, 24 

Cash, accounts, 305; crops, 63; 
record, 302, 304 

Caterpillars, growth of, 183 

Cattle, beef, see Beef cattle; dairy, 
see Dairy cattle 

Cherry, crown rot, 168 

Chester White, 265; illus., 267 

Cheviot, 258 

Chickens, see Poultry 

Chinch bug, 96, 190, 191 

Chlorine, 26, 35 

Cholera, hog, 269 

Chunk, farm, illus., 274 

Church, rural, 323 

Clay, 9, 11; how modified, 16, 53, 54; 
properties, 52; soils, 52; water- 
lifting power, 18 

Chmate, adapting crops to, 58; 
influencing choice of crops, 58; — 
crop production, 86; — method of 
harvesting, 72; influence on leg- 
umes, no, — on oats, 99, — 
on potatoes, 126, — on wheat, 
90 

Clover, 111-113; alsike, no; crim- 
son, no; Japan, 113; mammoth, 
113; red, in; sweet, 113 

Codling moth, 181, 186 

Cold frame, 136; illus., 136 

Comforts, home, 311-313 

Commercial fertilizer, see Fertilizer 

Community, rural, 311-326; and 
business relations, 321; and church 
relations, 323; and educational 
relations, 322; and recreation, 324; 
and social relations, 323 

Compacting, manure, 30; soil, 21 

Conformation of beef cattle, 225; 
of dairy cattle, 237 

Connecticut Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 157 

Conveniences, home, 309-311 



Corn, 74-88; cultivation, 82; dent, 
75; diseases, 84; distribution map, 
75; ear-to-row test, 155; fertihz- 
ers, 78; flint, 76; harvesting, 85- 
87; improvement, 85, 155-158; 
injurious insects, 181; kinds, 75; 
place in cropping system, 77; 
planting, 81; pod, 76; pop, 76; 
prices, 76; production and climate, 
76; production and labor, 88; 
root- rot, 84, 96, 165; seed bed, 77; 
seed drying, 79; seed selection, 78; 
seed testing, 80; smut, 84; illus., 
83; value, 74 

Corn-root, lice, 181; rot, 84, 96, 165; 
worm, 181 

Cotton, 119-123; boll-weevil, 123; 
boll- worm, 123; cultivation, 122; 
diseases, 122; distribution, 121; 
harvesting, 123; injurious insects, 
122; seed bed, 121 

Cowpea, 28, 114 

Crop farming, 296 

Crop production, 57-73; adaptation 
to climate, 58; cash crops, 63; 
cultivation, 70; getting plants 
started, 69; handling crops, 66; 
influenced by competition, 65; — 
by cropping systems, 60, 63; — 
by labor, 65; — by soil, 59; main- 
taining soil fertility, 60; planting, 
69; principles of, 57, 66; seedbed, 
69; selection of crops, 57; — of 
seed, 66-68 

Crop rotation, 188, 206 

Cropping system, 60 

Crops, barley, 102; buckwheat, 106; 
cash, 63; corn, 77; cotton, 119; 
factory, 130; forage, 108; legumes, 
108; oats, 9; potato, 124; rye, 104; 
tobacco, 129; wheat, 90 

Dairy cattle, 233-247; breeds, 240- 
242; conformation, 234, 237; farms, 
234; feeding, 242-246; herd, 236; 
improvement, 239; illus., 235; 



INDEX 



345 



management, 246, 247; summer 
feeding, 245; types of, 236; winter 
feeding, 245 

Diseases, plant, 161-172; apple, 156; 
bacterial, 162; bacterial black rot, 
168; bitter rot, 167; black mold, 
163, illus., 163; blue mold, 168; 
brown rot, 168; control of, 164-166; 
— apple rust, 165; — corn-root 
rot, 165; — wheat rust, 165; corn, 
84; cotton, 122; dry rot, 168; 
fruit trees, 144; growth of fungi, 
162; importance of control, 166; 
infecting potatoes, 128; interfer- 
ence with plant growth, 161; man- 
agement of crops to control, 62; 
meaning of, 161; oats, loi; pow- 
dery mildew, 164, illus., 164; pro- 
tecting crops from, 71; treatment 
for oat smut, 165; treatment for 
seed potatoes, 164; wheat, 98 

Dorset, 258 

Draft horse, illus., 271 

Drainage, foundation of soil manage- 
ment, 46; drained and undrained 
soil, 22, 23; and soil air, 25; and 
water control, 19 

Dressing percentage, beef, 224 

Drought, 22 

Dry mash, 291 

Ducks, 279 

Duroc Jersey, 265; illus., 266 

Durum wheat, 149 

Egg production, 280, 284, 287 
Embryo sac, 151; illus., 151 
English sparrow, 199 
Erosion, illus., 10 

Evaporation, loss of water by, 19; 
control of, 20 

Factory crops, 119, 130 

Farm accounting, 300-308; bills pay- 
able, 306; bills receivable, 306; 
cash accounts, 305; cash record, 
302-304; enterprise accounts, 305; 



feed records, 307; income, 295; 
inventory, 301, 302; labor records, 
306; production records, 237, 308; 
requirements for system of, 301; 
systems of, 300, 301 

Farm animals, care of, 212, 213; and 
capital, 218; and crops and crop- 
ping systems, 214; crop residue 
used by, 202; feeding of, 206-212; 
feeding balance for, 206; feeding 
principles, 207; feed lots and 
buildings for, 230; grading, 213; 
how secured, 205; improvement 
of, 213, 214; importance of well- 
bred, 205; kind to keep, 216; 
labor distribution by, 202; main- 
tenance ration for, 207; marketing, 
217; preparing rations for, 211, 
212; production of crops related 
to, 203; productive ration for, 207; 
standard ration for, 208; standard- 
izing ration for, 210; size of farm, 
216; and soil fertihty, 201; sup- 
ply of, 201; and system of farming, 
203; types and breeds of, 219; 
value of, 201 

Farm garden, 131-137; care and 
protection of, 134; preparation of, 
131; requirements for, 131 

Farm home, 309, 318 

Farm horses, see Horses 

Farm management, 294-308; ac- 
counting, see Farm accounting; 
crop farming, 296; definition of, 
294; diversified farming, 299; or- 
ganization, 299; special farming, 
298; stock farming, 298; types of 
farming, 295; illus., 296 

Farmer, business relations of, 321; 
church relations of, 323; commu- 
nity relations of, 319; educational 
relations of, 322; social relations of, 
323; and recreation, 324 

Farmstead, plan of, 316 

Fats, 207 

Feed records, 307 



346 



INDEX 



Feeders, beef cattle, 231; hogs, 263; 
sheep, 253 

Feeding, beef cattle, 230; crops for 
animals, 64; dairy cattle, 242; 
hogs, 266, 267; horses, 273-275; 
poultry, 283-287; principles of, 
207-212; sheep, 253, 258 

FertiHty, see Soil fertility 

Fertilization, 151, 152 

Fertilizers, commercial, 39-45; anal- 
ysis, 40, 41; estimating value of, 
41; home mixing, 42; for corn, 78; 
for tobacco, 130; for wheat, 98 

Fields, arrangement of, illus., 299 

Food for plants, see Plant food 

Forage crops, 108-118; definition of, 
108; grasses, 11 5-1 17; legumes, 
108-114; millets, 117; sorghums, 
118 

Free water, illus., 13 

Fruit raising, 138-146; care of trees, 
143; estabhshing an orchard, 140; 
grafting and budding, 145; in- 
sects and diseases, 143; soil, 143; 
a special crop, 138; variety and 
succession, 139 

Fultz, Abraham, 150 

Fungi, manner of growth, 162; para- 
sitic, 167 

Galloway, 228 

Galls, 171 

Gapes, 292 

Garden, 131-137; care and protec- 
tion of, 134; cold frame, 135, 136; 
essentials, 131; farm gardening, 
131; hot bed, 135; job for boys 
and girls, 135; plan, 134; pre- 
serving products of, 135; rotation, 
133; sources of information on, 
134; three-field system, 132; truck 
or market, 137 

Geese, 279 

Germination, capillary water for, 21; 
testing seeds for, 68, 80 

Grading, improvement by, 235 



Grafting, 145; illus., 144 

Grain moth, 182 

Granulation, heavy soils, 19, 44 

Grasses, 115-117; meadow, 116; 

pasture, 115 
Growth, plant, 6 
Guernsey, 242; illus., 241 
Guinea fowl, 279 

Hampshire, hog, 265; illus., 268; 
sheep, 257 

Hansen, N. E., 152 

Hay, 103, 107, 112, 114, 116-118 

Hereford, 227, 228; illus., 227 

Holstein, 240; illus., 238 

Home, farm, 309-318; comforts of, 
311; conveniences in, 309; fur- 
nace in, illus., 312; furnishings, 
317, 318; kitchen, 310; hghting, 
311, 312; Hving conditions in, 309; 
making attractive, 315; sanitation 
of, 313; sewage disposal of, 312; 
illus., 314; water supply of, 309, 
310 

Horses, farm, 270-277; care of, 275; 
conformation, 272; draft, 271, 272; 
illus., 271, 274; driving, 276; 
feeding, 273-275; grooming, 276; 
housing, 272; importance of, 270; 
stalls for, 273 

House, see Home 

House fly, 192 

Humus, 9, 61, 92 

Hydrogen, i, 2 

Income, farm, 295 

Incubation, 288, 289 

Inoculation, soil, 30-32 

Insects 180-193; abihty to meet 
adverse conditions, 183; birds, 
destroyers of, 193; biting, 186; 
cHmatic conditions related to, 190; 
control of, 62, 180, 185, 186, 188- 
191; diseases of, 192; enemies of, 
192, 193; food of, 186; growth of, 
183; harmful, 180; injuries by, 



INDEX 



347 



i8o, 182; injuries of corn, 83, — of 
cotton, 122, — of fruit, 144, — of 
garden crops, 134, — of oats, loi, 
— of potatoes, 128, — of wheat, 
95-96; kinds of, 182; learning 
about, 193; life history, 185; para- 
sitic, 192; reproduction of, 182; 
soil fertility and control of, 190; 
sucking, 187; useful, 180; what 
a farmer should know of, 187; see 
Birds, Climate 

Jersey, 240, 241 
Joint worm, 191 

Kafir, illus., 117 
Kerosene emulsion, 187 

Labor, 65, 87, 88, 97, 202. 203, 233 

Labor records, 306 

Lace wing fly, 180 

Lady beetle, 180 

Lambs, 259 

Land plaster, 36 

Larva, insect, 185 

Lay of land, 218 

Legumes, 30, 1 08-1 15; see Alfalfa; 
basis of selection, no; climate 
influencing, no; cowpea, 114; 
definition of, 108; inoculation, 
30, 32; Japan clover, 113; kinds 
of, 109; mam.moth clover, 113; 
supply nitrogen to soil, 30; red 
clover, in; soil for, no; soy bean, 
114; sweet clover, 113; value of, 
109; velvet bean, 114; vetch, 114 

Lighting farm home, 311 

Lime, 19, 44, 49 

Lice, 292 

Lime-sulfur mixture, 187 

Lincoln, 256; portrait, 256 

Living conditions, farm, 309 

Loam, 54 

Magnesium, 26 
Maintenance ration, 207, 243 
Mammals, 193 



Management, soil, 46-56; farm, 294- 
380; of dairy cattle, 246 

Manure, 28-30, 35, 202; compacting 
to prevent loss, 30; losses of, 28, 29, 
illus., 28; and soil management, 
48, 51; value of, 28, 29 

Markets, 217, 220, 231, 233, 252, 
261 

Mash, 285, 291 

May beetle, illus., 185 

Meal worm, 182 

Merino, 254, 255; illus., 255 

Mildew, 170, 171; illus., 164 

Milk, 233-251; bacteria in, 250; 
cooling, 250; handling, 247; im- 
purities, 248, 249; pails, illus., 249; 
production, 233; record, 237; uten- 
sils, 250 

Milker, 249 

Millet, 117 

Milo maize, illus., 118 

Mites, 293 

Mole, 193 

Mulch, illus., 3, 20, 83, 177 

Mutton, 252, 255-257; cuts of, 253 

New Jersey Agricultural Experiment 

Station, 289 
Nitrates, 27, 29-33, 42 
Nitrification, 28 
Nitrogen, 2, 26-33; availabihty of, 

27; carriers, 33; in commercial 

fertilizers, 32; losses, 29, illus., 29; 

supply of, 26, 29, 30, 48 
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 26 
Nodules, root, 31; illus., 31 
Nutritive ratio, 209 
Nymphs, 185 

Oats, 98-101; cHmatic influences on, 
99; diseases of, loi; distribution 
of, loi; planting, loi; seed bed, 
100; seed selection, 100; soil 
adapted for, 99 ; system of farming 
for, 100; value, 89 

Oliver, G. W., 153 



348 INDEX 

Organic matter in soils, g, 27, 28, 48, 

51, 53 
Osmosis, 5, 6; illus., 5 
Ovary, 151 
Owls, 195, 196 
Oxford, 257 
Oxygen, i, 2 



Pasture, 108, 115, 116 

Peach, brown rot, 168; scab, 171 

Percolation, 18 

Phosphate, 33-36, 40, 42, 52; influ- 
encing yield of potatoes, 34; illus., 
35; methods of using, 34 

Phosphoric acid, 36, 40, 41, 43 

Phyloxera, 192 

Pig, see Hog 

Pistil, 150, 151 

Plant diseases, see Diseases 

Plant improvement, 147-160; asso- 
ciations, 159; by crossing, 151-153; 
illus., 150-151; — double crossing, 
illus., 157; by introduction of 
foreign plants, 148; high yielding 
plants, 147; meaning of, 147; new 
plants, sudden appearance of, 149; 
selection, 153-160; — ear-to- row 
trial, 155; illus., 155; — four-hill- 
unit method, 158; — final, 155; — 
initial, 154; illus., 153; — multi- 
plying plot, 156 

Plant introduction, Division of, 148 

Plant food, 26-30, $3^ 36, 38 

Plants, helping to grow, 1-7; im- 
proving, 147-160, see Plant im- 
provement; diseases of, 161-172, 
see Diseases; insect injuries of, 
179-193, see Insects 

Planting, 69; corn, 77; alfalfa, 113, 
114; buckwheat, 107; clovet, 112; 
cotton, 122; fruit trees, 140, 141; 
oats, loi; plan for garden, 133, 
134; wheat, 95 

Plowing, 19 

Plum, brown rot, 36 

Poland China, 264; illus., 263 



Pollen, 151 

Pork, cuts of, illus., 262 

Potash, 38, 40, 41, 43 

Potato beetle, 183 

Potatoes, 124-129; climate suited for, 
126; cultivation, 126; diseases of, 
128, 168; dry rot of, 168; fertilizing, 
127; harvesting, 129; improvement, 
158; insect injuries, 128; potash 
needed for, 38; requirements for 
production, 126; treatment of seed, 
164; tubers, kind for selection, illus., 
127; value of, 124; varieties, 126 

Poultry, 278-293; care of chicks, 290; 
care of flock, 292; constitution 
and vigor, 281; feeding, 283-287; 
housing, 287; improvement, 282; 
incubation, 288, 289; kinds, 278; 
place on farm, 278; types and 
breeds, 280; — egg laying, 280; 
— general purpose, 281; — meat, 
280 

Production records, 308 

Productive ration, dairy cows, 244 

Protein, 2, 109, 207-211, 243, 244, 
266, 274, 285 

Pruning, 142, 143; illus., 140, 142 

Pupa, 185 

Purdue University, 41, 291 

Rambouillet, 255 

Ration, 207, 208, 210, 212, 244 

Records, feed, 307; labor, 306; 

production, 237, 308 
Recreation, 324 
Rice, 89, IDS, 106 
Rock particles, 9, 14, 15 
Root-hair, 4, 5; illus., 4 
Root systems, 4, 5 
Rot, bacterial, 168; bitter, 167; 

black, 168; blue mold, 168; brown, 

168; corn root, 84, 95, 165 
Rotation of crops, 48, 83, 92, 95, 100, 

no, 114, 115, 116, 120, 125, 129, 

132, 133, 166, 178, 188 
Rural community, 311-326 



INDEX 



349 



Rusts, 95, 165, 172, 195 

Rye, 89, 104, 105 ; as green manure, 28 

Salt, 44, 213 

Sand, 9; surface exposed, illus., 15 

Sandy soil, see Soil 

Sanitation, 313, 314 

San Jose scale, illus., 187 

Scab, 165; wheat, 95 

Seed, drying corn, illus., 79; germi- 
nation test, illus., 80; planting, 
see Planting; preparation of, 77, 
84, 85; selection, 66, 93, 100 

Seed bed, 69, 82, 95, 100, iii, 113, 
121, 128 

Septic tank, 313, 314 

Sewage disposal, 313, 314; illus., 

313, 314 

Sheep, 252-260; care and manage- 
ment, 258; feeders, 259; feeding, 
258; kind to raise, 254; lambs, 259; 
long wooled breeds, 256; market, 
252, 259; medium wooled breeds, 
256; mutton breeds, 256; parasites, 
260; production, 252; raising, 258; 
stocking farm with, 253; types of, 
254; wooled type, 254 

Shorthorn, 226; illus., 226 

Shropshire, 257 

Silage, 86, 87, 246 

Silkworm, 180 

Silo, 86 

Skunk, 193 

Smut, 84, 94, loi, 172 

Social relations, 323 

Soil, 5-56; acid, 44; air, 23-25; 
amendments, 43, 44; and choice of 
crops, 59; clay, 52; compacting, 
21; composition of, 8; definition, 
8; drainage, illus., 22, 23, see also 
Drainage; fertility, see Soil fer- 
tility; inoculation, 31; kinds, 11; 
liming, 44; loam, 54; mulch, 3, 20, 
83, 177; organic matter in, 27, 28, 
48, 51, 53; origin of, 9; relation to 
plant growth, 8; illus., 3; sandy, 



50; sub-soil, illus., 9; variation 
in, 49; water, see Water 

Soil fertility, acid phosphate, 34, 35; 
amendments, 43, 45; bacteria, 27, 
28; calcium, 37; clay, 52, 54; 
commercial fertilizers, see Ferti- 
lizers; drainage, see Drainage; 
farm animals, 203, 204; green 
manure, 30, 48; legumes, 30, 32, 
no, in; lime, 44, 45, 49; loam, 
54, 55; manure, 28-30, 48; nitro- 
gen, 26-33; organic matter, 26-32; 
phosphoric acid, 36; phosphorus, 
33^36; plant food, 26; potassium, 
36-38; rock phosphate, 34-46; 
sandy soils, 50-51; system of 
farming, 55, 56; tillage, 47, 48 

Soil management, 23, 46-56; clay 
soils, 52-54; definition of, 46; 
drainage, 46, 47; lime, 49; loam, 
54; manure, 48, 49; rotation of 
crops, 48; sandy soils, 49-51; 
tillage, 47; tilth, 46 

Sorghums, 118 

Southdown, 257 

Soy bean, 114 

Spores, 169, 170 

Spot diseases, 171 

Spray, 186, 187 

Stables, dairy, 249; horse, 272, 273 

Standard rations, 208, 244, 284 

Starch, i 

Straw, 28 

Sub-soil, illus., 9 

Sulfur, 26 

Syrphus fly, 180 

Systems of accounting 300, 301 

Tamworth, 264 
Tillage, 19, 47 
Timothy, 116; illus., 116 
Tilth, 46 

Tobacco, 129, 130 
Tomato, 130; worm, 192 
Turkey, 279 

Utensils, milk, 250 



350 



INDEX 



Vegetables, see Garden 

Velvet bean, 114 

Vetch, 114 

Ventilation, 246, 258, 272, 290, 311 

Water, absorbing organs, root-hairs, 
5; amount in soil, 15; amount 
used by plants, 3; capillary or film, 
3, 14, 15; control by drainage, 21; 
drainage in sandy soils, 17; effect 
on soil, 10; free, 14; how bring to 
surface of soil, 20; how held in soil, 
14, 19; how plants get, 4; influ- 
ence on soil bacteria, 14, — on soil 
temperature, 13; kinds, 19; losses 
from soil, illus., 19; movement in 
soil, 17, 19; needed in soil, 12; path 
in plant, 2; percolation, 19; 
plants need, 2; properties of, 12; 
relation to plant growth, illus., 3; 
— to root-hair, illus., 18; — soil 
particles, 12; — to soil tempera- 
ture, 13; solvent power, 24; sup- 
ply for home, 313; table, 16, 17; 
upward movement in soil, 1 7 



Weeds, 173-179; control of, 62, 177, 
178; definition of, 173; effect on 
crop production, 173; illus., 174, 
175; hosts for fungi, 166; losses 
due to, 173; protecting crops from, 
71; seed dispersal, 176; why suc- 
cessful, 174-176 

Wheat, 90-97; cost of production, 97; 
destruction of barberry for rust 
control, 165; diseases of, 95; dis- 
tribution map, 90; improvement 
by selection, 159; influence of 
chmate on, 90; insects injurious to, 
95; methods of harvesting, 96; 
production and value, 89; rela- 
tion to system of farming, 91; 
seed bed, 95; seed selection, 94; 
soil suited for, 91; time of sowing, 
95; types, illus., 94 

White grub, 181, 188 

Wilt, 170 

Wire worm, 181, 189 

Yard, farm, 316, 317 
Y. M. C. A., rural, 326 



CONGRESS 




DDDESflhST47 



